Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Predicting the Outcomes of Parents of Transition-Age Youth or Young Adults with ASD

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The transition outcomes for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and their families are less than desirable. A survey of parent stressors, resources, coping/appraisals, and adaptation to transition was completed by 226 parents. The mediating mechanisms between stressors and parent outcomes were identified. At the indicator level, three stressors (i.e., autism severity, mental health crisis/challenging behaviors, and filial obligation), four resources (i.e., general social support, transition planning quality, parent–teacher alliance, and parenting efficacy), and three coping styles (i.e., problem-focused coping, avoidance-focused coping, and optimism) predicted parents’ outcomes (i.e., burden, transition experience, subjective health, and quality of life). At the structural level, optimism, emotion-coping strategies, and resources mediated the relationships between stressors and parental outcomes. Research and practical applications are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abbeduto, L., Seltzer, M. M., Shattuck, P., Krauss, M. W., Orsmond, G., & Murphy, M. M. (2004). Psychological well-being and coping in mothers of youths with autism, down syndrome, or fragile X syndrome. American Journal on Mental Retardation,109(3), 237–254. https://doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2004)109%3c237:PWACIM%3e2.0.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Aiello, R., & Ruble, L. A. (2011). Survey of school psychologists’ autism knowledge, training, and experiences. In Poster presented at the annual convention of the national association of school psychologists. San Francisco: CA.

  • Aldwin, C. M., & Revenson, T. A. (1987). Does coping help? A reexamination of the relation between coping and mental health. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,53(2), 337. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.53.2.337.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Allen, C. W., Silove, N., Williams, K., & Hutchins, P. (2007). Validity of the social communication questionnaire in assessing risk of autism in preschool children with developmental problems. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,37(7), 1272–1278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0279-7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ankeny, E. M., & Lehmann, J. P. (2011). Journey toward self-determination: Voices of students with disabilities who participated in a secondary transition program on a community college campus. Remedial and Special Education,32(4), 279–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ankeny, E. M., Wilkins, J., & Spain, J. (2009). Mothers’ experiences of transition planning for their children with disabilities. Teaching Exceptional Children,41(6), 28–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885728807030002040.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aschbrenner, K. A., Greenberg, J. S., Allen, S. M., & Seltzer, M. M. (2010). Subjective burden and personal gains among older parents of adults with serious mental illness. Psychiatric Services,61(6), 605–611. https://doi.org/10.1176/ps.2010.61.6.605.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baghdadli, A., Pry, R., Michelon, C., & Rattaz, C. (2014). Impact of autism in adolescents on parental quality of life. Quality of Life Research,23(6), 1859–1868. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-014-0635-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benson, P. R. (2010). Coping, distress, and well-being in mothers of children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders,4(2), 217–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2009.09.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bishop, S. L., Richler, J., Cain, A. C., & Lord, C. (2007). Predictors of perceived negative impact in mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder. American Journal on Mental Retardation,112(6), 450–461. https://doi.org/10.1352/0895-8017(2007)112%5b450:POPNII%5d2.0.CO;2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bitsika, V., & Sharpley, C. F. (2004). Stress, anxiety and depression among parents of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools,14(2), 151–161.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blacher, J., Kraemer, B., & Howell, E. (2010). Family expectations and transition experiences for young adults with severe disabilities: Does syndrome matter? Advances in Mental Health and Learning Disabilities,4(1), 3–16. https://doi.org/10.5042/amhld.2010.0052.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boehm, T. L., Carter, E. W., & Taylor, J. L. (2015). Family quality of life during the transition to adulthood for individuals with intellectual disability and/or autism spectrum disorders. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities,120(5), 395–411. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-120.5.395.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brannan, A. M., Heflinger, C. A., & Foster, E. M. (2003). The role of caregiver strain and other family variables in determining children’s use of mental health services. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders,11(2), 77–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/106342660301100202.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cameto, R., Levine, P., & Wagner, M. (2004). Transition planning for students with disabilities: A special topic report of findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2). Retrieved from http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED496547.pdf.

  • Carter, E. W., Austin, D., & Trainor, A. A. (2012). Predictors of postschool employment outcomes for young adults with severe disabilities. Journal of Disability Policy Studies,23(1), 50–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carter, A. S., Martinez-Pedraza, F. D. L., & Gray, S. A. O. (2009). Stability and individual change in depressive symptoms among mothers raising young children with ASD: Maternal and child correlates. Journal of Clinical Psychology,65(12), 1270–1280. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20634.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S. (1997). You want to measure coping but your protocol’too long: Consider the brief cope. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine,4(1), 92–100.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carver, C. S., Scheier, M. F., & Segerstrom, S. C. (2010). Optimism. Clinical Psychology Review,30(7), 879–889.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chiang, H. M., Cheung, Y. K., Li, H., & Tsai, L. Y. (2013). Factors associated with participation in employment for high school leavers with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,43(8), 1832–1842.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chou, Y. C., Pu, C. Y., Lee, Y. C., Lin, L. C., & Kröger, T. (2009). Effect of perceived stigmatisation on the quality of life among ageing female family carers: A comparison of carers of adults with intellectual disability and carers of adults with mental illness. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,53(7), 654–664. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2009.01173.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conti-Ramsden, G., Botting, N., & Durkin, K. (2008). Parental perspectives during the transition to adulthood of adolescents with a history of specific language impairment (SLI). Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research,51(1), 84–96. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2008/006).

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dabrowska, A., & Pisula, E. (2010). Parenting stress and coping styles in mothers and fathers of pre-school children with autism and Down syndrome. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,54(3), 266–280. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2788.2010.01258.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dardas, L. A., & Ahmad, M. M. (2015). Coping strategies as mediators and moderators between stress and quality of life among parents of children with autistic disorder. Stress and Health,31(1), 5–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2513.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dautzenberg, M. G., Diederiks, J. P., Philipsen, H., Stevens, F. C., Tan, F. E., & Vernooij-Dassen, M. J. (2000). The competing demands of paid work and parent care: Middle-aged daughters providing assistance to elderly parents. Research on Aging,22(2), 165–187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0164027500222004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dempsey, I., & Keen, D. (2008). A review of processes and outcomes in family-centered services for children with a disability. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education,28(1), 42–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121408316699.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunst, C. J. (2002). Family-centered practices birth through high school. The Journal of Special Education,36(3), 141–149. https://doi.org/10.1177/00224669020360030401.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunst, C. J., & Trivette, C. M. (1996). Empowerment, effective helpgiving practices and family-centered care. Pediatric Nursing,22(4), 334–338.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dykens, E. M. (2000). Annotation: Psychopathology in children with intellectual disability. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines,41(4), 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469-7610.00626.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eaves, L. C., & Ho, H. H. (2008). Young adult outcome of autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,38(4), 739–747. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0441-x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekas, N. V., Lickenbrock, D. M., & Whitman, T. L. (2010). Optimism, social support, and wellbeing in mothers of children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,40(10), 1274–1284. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-0986-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Florian, V., & Dangoor, N. (1994). Personal and familial adaptation of women with severe physical disabilities: A further validation of the Double ABCX Model. Journal of Marriage and Family,56(3), 735–746. https://doi.org/10.2307/352882.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Folkman, S., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2004). Coping: Pitfalls and promise. Annual Review of Psychology,55, 745–774. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.55.090902.141456.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fujiura, G. T., Yamaki, K., & Czechowicz, S. (1998). Disability among ethnic and racial minorities in the United States: A summary of economic status and family structure. Journal of Disability Policy Studies,9(2), 111–130. https://doi.org/10.1177/104420739800900207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geers, A. L., Wellman, J. A., & Lassiter, G. D. (2009). Dispositional optimism and engagement: The moderating influence of goal prioritization. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,96(4), 913. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014830.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gerhardt, P. F., & Lainer, I. (2011). Addressing the needs of adolescents and adults with autism: A crisis on the horizon. Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy,41(1), 37–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Glidden, L. M., & Jobe, B. M. (2007). Measuring parental daily rewards and worries in the transition to adulthood. American Journal on Mental Retardation,112(4), 275–288.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenberg, J. S., Seltzer, M. M., Krauss, M. W., Chou, R. J., & Hong, J. (2004). The effect of quality of the relationship between mothers and adult children with schizophrenia, autism, or down syndrome on maternal well-being: The mediating role of optimism. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,74, 14–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hagner, D., Kurtz, A., Cloutier, H., Arakelian, C., Brucker, D. L., & May, J. (2012). Outcomes of a family-centered transition process for students with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities,27(1), 42–50.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hanley-Maxwell, C., Pogoloff, S. M., & Whitney Thomas, J. (1998). Families: The heart of transition. In F. Rusch & J. G. Chadsey (Eds.), Beyond high school: Transition from school to work (pp. 234–264). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P., Kovshoff, H., Ward, N. J., Degli Espinosa, F., Brown, T., & Remington, B. (2005). Systems analysis of stress and positive perceptions in mothers and fathers of pre-school children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,35(5), 635–644. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-005-0007-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hayes, S. A., & Watson, S. L. (2013). The impact of parenting stress: A meta-analysis of studies comparing the experience of parenting stress in parents of children with and without autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,43(3), 629–642. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1604-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heiman, T. (2002). Parents of children with disabilities: Resilience, coping, and future expectations. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities,14(2), 159–171.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heller, T., Miller, A. B., & Factor, A. (1997). Adults with mental retardation as supports to their parents: Effects on parental caregiving appraisal. Mental Retardation,35(5), 338–346. https://doi.org/10.1352/0047-6765(1997)035%3c0338:AWMRAS%3e2.0.CO;2.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hendricks, D. R., & Wehman, P. (2009). Transition from school to adulthood for youth with autism spectrum disorders: Review and recommendations. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities,24(2), 77–88. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357608329827.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hirsch, J. K., Britton, P. C., & Conner, K. R. (2010). Psychometric evaluation of the life orientation test—revised in treated opiate dependent individuals. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction,8(3), 423–431.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hoffman, L., Marquis, J., Poston, D., Summers, J. A., & Turnbull, A. (2006). Assessing family outcomes: Psychometric evaluation of the Beach Center Family Quality of Life Scale. Journal of Marriage and Family,68(4), 1069–1083.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holmes, T. H., & Rahe, R. H. (1967). The social readjustment rating scale. Journal of Psychosomatic Research,11(2), 213–218.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P., Goode, S., Hutton, J., & Rutter, M. (2004). Adult outcome for children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,45(2), 212–229.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlin, P., & Moss, P. (2012). Adults with autism spectrum disorders. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,57(5), 275–283.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), 20 U.S.C. § 1400 (2004)

  • Kalb, L. G., Hagopian, L. P., Gross, A. L., & Vasa, R. A. (2017). Psychometric characteristics of the mental health crisis assessment scale in youth with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,59(1), 48–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12748.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keen, D., Couzens, D., Muspratt, S., & Rodger, S. (2010). The effects of a parent-focused intervention for children with a recent diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder on parenting stress and competence. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders,4(2), 229–241.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kersh, J., Hedvat, T. T., Hauser-Cram, P., & Warfield, M. E. (2006). The contribution of marital quality to the well-being of parents of children with developmental disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,50(12), 883–893.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, H. W., Greenberg, J. S., Seltzer, M. M., & Krauss, M. W. (2003). The role of coping in maintaining the psychological well-being of mothers of adults with intellectual disability and mental illness. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,47(4–5), 313–327.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krakovich, T. M., McGrew, J. H., Yu, Y., & Ruble, L. A. (2016). Stress in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder: An exploration of demands and resources. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,46(6), 2042–2053.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kucharczyk, S., Reutebuch, C. K., Carter, E. W., Hedges, S., El Zein, F., Fan, H., et al. (2015). Addressing the needs of adolescents with autism spectrum disorder: Considerations and complexities for high school interventions. Exceptional Children,81(3), 329–349. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088357614522290.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landmark, L. J., Ju, S., & Zhang, D. (2010). Substantiated best practices in transition: Fifteen plus years later. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals,33(3), 165–176.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lavee, Y., McCubbin, H. I., & Patterson, J. M. (1985). The double ABCX model of family stress and adaptation: An empirical test by analysis of structural equations with latent variables. Journal of Marriage and the Family. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-012-9285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lillenstein, D. J., Levinson, E. M., Sylvester, C. A., & Brady, E. E. (2006). School psychologist involvement in transition planning: A comparison of attitudes and perceptions of school psychologists and transition coordinators. Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education,29(1), 4–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lounds, J., Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., & Shattuck, P. T. (2007). Transition and change in adolescents and young adults with autism: Longitudinal effects on maternal well-being. American Journal on Mental Retardation,112(6), 401–417.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lustig, D. C. (1999). Families with an adult with mental retardation: Predictors of family adjustment. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling,30(3), 11–18. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-47.4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • MacCallum, R. C., & Austin, J. T. (2000). Applications of structural equation modeling in psychological research. Annual Review of Psychology,51(1), 201–226.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maenner, M. J., Smith, L. E., Hong, J., Makuch, R., Greenberg, J. S., & Mailick, M. R. (2013). Evaluation of an activities of daily living scale for adolescents and adults with developmental disabilities. Disability and Health Journal,6(1), 8–17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dhjo.2012.08.005.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mangen, D. J., Bengtson, V. L., & Landry, P. H. (Eds.). (1988). Measurement of intergenerational relations. Newbury Park: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Manning, M. M., Wainwright, L., & Bennett, J. (2011). The double ABCX model of adaptation in racially diverse families with a school-age child with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,41, 320–331. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-010-1056-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McCubbin, M. A., & McCubbin, H. I. (1996). Resiliency in families: A conceptual model of family adjustment and adaptation in response to stress and crises. In H. I. McCubbin, A. I. Thompson, & M. A. McCubbin (Eds.), Family assessment: Resiliency, coping and adaptation: Inventories for research and practice. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • McGrew, J. H., & Keyes, M. L. (2014). Caregiver stress during the first year after diagnosis of an autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders,8(10), 1373–1385.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCubbin, H. I., & Patterson, J. M. (1983). The family stress process: The double ABCX model of adjustment and adaptation. Marriage & Family Review,6(1–2), 7–37. https://doi.org/10.1300/J002v06n01_02.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McStay, R. L., Trembath, D., & Dissanayake, C. (2014). Stress and family quality of life in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder: Parent gender and the double ABCX model. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,44(12), 3101–3118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2014.07.011.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Menard, J., Schoolcraft, S., Glidden, L. M., & Lazarus, C. (2002). Transition daily rewards and worries. In Poster presented at the 35th Annual Gatlinburg Conference, San Diego, CA.

  • Migliore, A., Timmons, J., Butterworth, J., & Lugas, J. (2012). Predictors of employment and postsecondary education of youth with autism. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin,55(3), 176–184.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Minnes, P., Woodford, L., & Passey, J. (2007). Mediators of Well-being in Ageing Family Carers of Adults with Intellectual Disabilities. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities,20(6), 539–552. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2007.00364.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moore, E. J., & Schelling, A. (2015). Postsecondary inclusion for individuals with an intellectual disability and its effects on employment. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities,19, 130–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744629514564448.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neece, C. L., Kraemer, B. R., & Blacher, J. (2009). Transition satisfaction and family well being among parents of young adults with severe intellectual disability. Intellectual and developmental disabilities,47(1), 31–43. https://doi.org/10.1352/2009.47:31-43.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newman, L., Wagner, M., Juang, T., Shaver, D., Knokey, A. M., Yu, J., et al. (2011). Secondary school programs and performance of students with disabilities: A special topic report of findings from the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) (NCSER2012-3000). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Special Education Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Norris, M., & Lecavalier, L. (2010). Screening accuracy of Level 2 autism spectrum disorder rating scales. A review of selected instruments. Autism : The International Journal of Research and Practice,14, 263–284. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361309348071.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parish, S. L., Thomas, K. C., Williams, C. S., & Crossman, M. K. (2015). Autism and families’ financial burden: The association with health insurance coverage. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities,120(2), 166–175. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-120.2.166.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pearlin, L. I., & Schooler, C. (1978). The structure of coping. Journal of Health and Social Behavior,1, 2–21. https://doi.org/10.2307/2136319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plante, T. G. (2010). The santa clara strength of religious faith questionnaire: Assessing faith engagement in a brief and nondenominational manner. Religions,1(1), 3–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Plante, T. G., & Boccaccini, M. T. (1997). The Santa Clara strength of religious faith questionnaire. Pastoral Psychology,45(5), 375–387. https://doi.org/10.1037/t67691-000.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pottie, C. G., & Ingram, K. M. (2008). Daily stress, coping, and well-being in parents of children with autism: A multilevel modeling approach. Journal of Family Psychology,22(6), 855–864. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013604.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Raikes, H. A., & Thompson, R. A. (2005). Efficacy and social support as predictors of parenting stress among families in poverty. Infant Mental Health Journal,26(3), 177–190.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rattaz, C., Michelon, C., Roeyers, H., & Baghdadli, A. (2017). Quality of life in parents of young adults with ASD: EpiTED cohort. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3197-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodrigue, J. R., Morgan, S. B., & Geffken, G. (1990). Families of autistic children: Psychological functioning of mothers. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology,19(4), 371–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roux, A. M., Rast, J. E., & Shattuck, P. T. (2018). State-level variation in vocational rehabilitation service use and related outcomes among transition-age youth on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3793-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Bailey, A., & Lord, C. (2003). Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ). Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schall, C., Wehman, P., & McDonough, J. L. (2012). Transition from school to work for students with autism spectrum disorders: Understanding the process and achieving better outcomes. Pediatric Clinics,59(1), 189–202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2011.10.009.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scheier, M. F., Carver, C. S., & Bridges, M. W. (1994). Distinguishing optimism from neuroticism (and trait anxiety, self-mastery, and self-esteem): A re-evaluation of the Life Orientation Test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,67, 1063–1078. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.6.1063.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, M. M., Floyd, F., Song, J., Greenberg, J., & Hong, J. (2011). Midlife and aging parents of adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities: Impacts of lifelong parenting. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities,116(6), 479–499. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-116.6.479.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, M. M., Krauss, M. W., Orsmond, G. I., & Vestal, C. (2000). Families of adolescents and adults with autism: Uncharted territory. International review of Research in Mental Retardation,23, 267–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0074-7750(00)80014-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seltzer, M. M., Shattuck, P., Abbeduto, L., & Greenberg, J. S. (2004). Trajectory of development in adolescents and adults with autism. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews,10(4), 234–247. https://doi.org/10.1002/mrdd.20038.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shattuck, P. T., Roux, A. M., Hudson, L. E., Taylor, J. L., Maenner, M. J., & Trani, J. F. (2012). Services for adults with an autism spectrum disorder. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,57(5), 284–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371205700503.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shattuck, P. T., Wagner, M., Narendorf, S., Sterzing, P., & Hensley, M. (2011). Post–high school service use among young adults with an autism spectrum disorder. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine,165(2), 141–146. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpediatrics.2010.279.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L. E., Hong, J., Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., Almeida, D. M., & Bishop, S. L. (2010). Daily experiences among mothers of adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,40(2), 167–178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0844-y.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L. E., Seltzer, M. M., Tager-Flusberg, H., Greenberg, J. S., & Carter, A. S. (2008). A comparative analysis of well-being and coping among mothers of toddlers and mothers of adolescents with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,38(5), 876. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-007-0461-6.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Snell-Rood, C., Ruble, L., Kleinert, H., McGrew, J. H., Adams, M., Rodgers, A., ... Yu, Y. (2020). Stakeholder perspectives on transition planning, implementation, and outcomes for students with autism spectrum disorder. Autism. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361319894827.

  • Soper, D. S. (2017). A priori sample size calculator for structural equation models [Software]. http://www.danielsoper.com/statcalc

  • Stuart, M., & McGrew, J. H. (2009). Caregiver burden after receiving a diagnosis of an autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders,3(1), 86–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2008.04.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Talapatra, D. (2014). Perceptions and roles of school psychologists in transition services for students with intellectual disabilities. Unpublished dissertation, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA.

  • Taylor, J. L., Hodapp, R. M., Burke, M. M., Waitz-Kudla, S. N., & Rabideau, C. (2017). Training parents of youth with autism spectrum disorder to advocate for adult disability services: Results from a pilot randomized controlled trial. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,47(3), 846–857. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-016-2994-z.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Taylor, J. L., & Seltzer, M. M. (2011). Employment and post-secondary educational activities for young adults with autism spectrum disorders during the transition to adulthood. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders,41(5), 566–574.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Test, D. W., Mazzotti, V. L., Mustian, A. L., Fowler, C. H., Kortering, L., & Kohler, P. (2009). Evidence-based secondary transition predictors for improving postschool outcomes for students with disabilities. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals,32(3), 160–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/0885728809346960.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trainor, A. A. (2008). Using cultural and social capital to improve postsecondary outcomes and expand transition models for youth with disabilities. The Journal of Special Education,42(3), 148–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466907313346.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Education. Higher education opportunity act—2008. Retrieved from https://www2.ed.gov/policy/highered/leg/hea08/index.html

  • Wehman, P., Schall, C., Carr, S., Targett, P., West, M., & Cifu, G. (2014). Transition from school to adulthood for youth with autism spectrum disorder: What we know and what we need to know. Journal of Disability Policy Studies. https://doi.org/10.1177/1044207313518071.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, J. A., Tint, A., Paquette-Smith, M., & Lunsky, Y. (2016). Perceived self-efficacy in parents of adolescents and adults with autism spectrum disorder. Autism,20(4), 425–434. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361315586292.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, H. J., & Perkins, E. A. (2014). Family caregivers of adults with intellectual and developmental disabilities: Outcomes associated with US services and supports. Intellectual & Developmental Disability,52(2), 147–159. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-52.2.147.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, V. (2017). Towards better outcomes for families of transition-age youth or young adults with ASD: A mixed methods study from a parent's perspective. Kentucky, US: Lexington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yu, Y., McGrew, J. H., Rand, K. L., & Mosher, C. E. (2018). Using a model of family adaptation to examine outcomes of caregivers of individuals with autism spectrum disorder transitioning into adulthood. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders,54, 37–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2018.06.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zimet, G. D., Powell, S. S., Farley, G. K., Werkman, S., & Berkoff, K. A. (1990). Psychometric characteristics of the multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of Personality Assessment,55(3–4), 610–617. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa5503&4_17.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgment

This project was supported by Society for the Study of School Psychology. We also wish to thank Dr. Xin Ma and Johnathan Campbell for assistance with data analyses, data interpretation, and study design.

Funding

This project is funded by Society for the Study of School Psychology.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. MIND Institute, UC Davis, 2825 50th Street, Sacramento, CA, 95817, USA

    Venus Wong

  2. Indiana University - Purdue University Indianapolis, 402 North Blackford Street, Indianapolis, IN, 46202, USA

    John McGrew

  3. Educational, School, and Counseling Psychology, University of Kentucky, 237 Dickey Hall, Lexington, KY, 40506, USA

    Lisa Ruble

Authors
  1. Venus Wong
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. John McGrew
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Lisa Ruble
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Venus Wong.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

Venus Wong declares that she has no conflict of interest. Lisa Ruble declares that she has no conflict of interest. John McGrew declares that he has no conflict of interest.

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committees where the data was collected and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in this study.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was collected from all the participants included in the study.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Wong, V., McGrew, J. & Ruble, L. Predicting the Outcomes of Parents of Transition-Age Youth or Young Adults with ASD. J Autism Dev Disord 50, 2723–2739 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04362-1

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04362-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation