Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Fathers’ Orientation to their Children’s Autism Diagnosis: A Grounded Theory Study

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Sixteen fathers of individuals with autism were interviewed to develop a grounded theory explaining how they learned about their children’s autism diagnosis. Results suggest the orientation process entails at least two phases: orienting oneself and orienting others. The orienting oneself phase entailed fathers having suspicion of developmental differences, engaging in research and education activities, having their children formally evaluated; inquiring about their children’s prognosis, and having curiosities about autism’s etiology. The orienting others phase entailed orientating family members and orienting members of their broader communities. Recommendations for responsive service provision, support for fathers, and future research are offered.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th edn.). Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Hannon, M. D. (2013). ‘Love him and everything else will fall into place’: an analysis of narratives of African-American fathers of children with autism spectrum disorders (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (Order No. 3576535).

  • Hannon, M. D. (2014). Smiles from the heart: humanistic counseling considerations for fathers of sons with Asperger’s disorder. Professional Counselor, 4(4), 363–377. doi:10.15241/mdh.4.4.363.

  • Hannon, M. D., White, E, & Nadrich, T. (2017). Influences of autism on fathering style among Black American fathers: A narrative inquiry. Journal of Family Therapy, 39(2), 1–23. doi:10.1111/1467-6427.12165.

  • Ben Itzchak, E., Lahat, E., & Zachor, D. A. (2011). Advanced parental ages and low birth weight in autism spectrum disorders—Rates and effect on functioning. Research in Developmental Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 32(5), 1776–1781.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bourdieu, P. (1986). The aristocracy of culture. Material Culture: Critical Concepts in the Social Sciences, 1(1), 164–193.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brobst, J. B., Clopton, J. R., & Hendrick, S. S. (2009). Parenting children with autism spectrum disorders: The couple’s relationship. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 24(1), 38–49.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2016). National center on birth defects and developmental disabilities. Retrieved from http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html.

  • Chin, R., Hall, P., & Daiches, A. (2011). Fathers’ experiences of their transition to fatherhood: A metasynthesis. Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology, 29(1), 4–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corbin, J. M., & Strauss, A. (1990). Grounded theory research: Procedures, canons, and evaluative criteria. Qualitative Sociology, 13(1), 3–21.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Creswell, J. W. (2006). Qualitative research design: Choosing among five traditions (2nd edn.). Thousand Oaks: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Croen, L. A., Najjar, D. V., Fireman, B., & Grether, J. K. (2007). Maternal and paternal age and risk of autism spectrum disorders. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine, 161(4), 334–340.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, N. O., & Carter, A. S. (2008). Parenting stress in mothers and fathers of toddlers with Autism spectrum disorders: Associations with child characteristics. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 38(7), 1278–1291.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeKanter, R. (1987). A father is a bag full of money: The person, the position, and the symbol of the father. In T. Knijn & A. C. Mulder (Eds.), Unraveling fatherhood (pp. 6–26). Dordrecht: Foris.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dey, I. (2004). Grounded theory. In C. Seale, G. Gobo, J. Gubrium, & D. Silverman (Eds.) Qualitative research practice (pp. 80–93). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

  • Dunn, M. E., Burbine, T., Bowers, C. A., & Tantleff-Dunn, S. (2001). Moderators of stress in parents of children with autism. Community Mental Health Journal, 37(1), 39–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finlay, L. (2002). “Outing” the researcher: The provenance, process, and practice of reflexivity. Qualitative Health Research, 12(4), 531–545.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freedman, B. H., Kalb, L. G., Zablotsky, B., & Stuart, E. A. (2012). Relationship status among parents of children with autism spectrum disorders: A population-based study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 42(4), 539–548.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • García-López, C., Sarriá, E., & Pozo, P. (2016). Multilevel approach to gender differences in adaptation in father-mother dyads parenting individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 28, 7–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garfield, C. F., Isacco, A., & Bartlo, W. D. (2010). Men’s health and fatherhood in the urban Midwestern United States. International Journal of Men’s Health, 9(3), 161.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerdts, J. A., Bernier, R., Dawson, G., & Estes, A. (2013). The broader autism phenotype in simplex and multiplex families. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(7), 1597–1605. doi:10.1007/s10803-012-1706-6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, D. E. (2002). ‘Everybody just freezes. Everybody is just embarrassed’: Felt and enacted stigma among parents of children with high functioning autism. Sociology of Health & Illness, 24(6), 734–749.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gray, D. E. (2003). Gender and coping: The parents of children with high functioning autism. Social Science & Medicine, 56(3), 631–642.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartley, S. L., Barker, E. T., Seltzer, M. M., Floyd, F., Greenberg, J., Orsmond, G., & Bolt, D. (2010). The relative risk and timing of divorce in families of children with an autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(4), 449.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hastings, R. P., Kovshoff, H., Ward, N. J., Degli Espinosa, F., Brown, T., & Remington, B. (2005). Systems analysis of stress and positive perceptions in mothers and fathers of pre-school children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 35(5), 635.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heaman, D. J. (1995). Perceived stressors and coping strategies of parents who have children with developmental disabilities: A comparison of mothers with fathers. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 10(5), 311–320.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Janecka, M., Mill, J., Basson, M. A., Goriely, A., Spiers, H., Reichenberg, A., et al. (2017). Advanced paternal age effects in neurodevelopmental disorders—Review of potential underlying mechanisms. Translational Psychiatry, 7(1), 9. doi:10.1038/tp.2016.294.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lamb, M. E. (2013). The father’s role: Cross cultural perspectives. London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lampi, K. M., Hinkka-yli-salomäki, S., Lehti, V., Helenius, H., Gissler, M., Brown, A. S., & Sourander, A. (2013). Parental age and risk of autism spectrum disorders in a Finnish national birth cohort. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(11), 2526–2535. doi:10.1007/s10803-013-1801-3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1995). Naturalistic inquiry (2nd edn.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lundström, S., Haworth, C. M. A., Carlström, E., Gillberg, C., Mill, J., Råstam, M., et al. (2010). Trajectories leading to autism spectrum disorders are affected by paternal age: Findings from two nationally representative twin studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(7), 850–856. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2010.02223.x.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacDonald, E. E., & Hastings, R. P. (2010). Mindful parenting and care involvement of fathers of children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 19(2), 236–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mandell, D. S., Ittenbach, R. F., Levy, S. E., & Pinto-Martin, J. (2007). Disparities in diagnoses received prior to a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37(9), 1795–1802. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0314-8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McAdoo, J. L. (1993). The roles of African-American fathers: An ecological perspective. Families in Society, 74(1), 28–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • McLeod, J. (2001). Developing a research tradition consistent with the practices and values of counselling and psychotherapy: Why counselling and psychotherapy research is necessary. Counselling and Psychotherapy Research, 1(1), 3–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meltzer, D. (2008). Explorations in autism: A psycho-analytical study (No. 3). London: Karnac Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis: A sourcebook. Beverly Hills: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morrow, S. L., & Smith, M. L. (2000). Qualitative research for counseling psychology. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Eds.), Handbook of Counseling Psychology (3rd edn., pp. 199–230). New York: Wiley.

  • Naseef, R. (2001). Special children, challenged parents: The struggles and rewards of raising child with a disability. Baltimore, MD: The Paul H. Brookes Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palkovitz, R. (2002). Involved fathering and men’s adult development: Provisional balances. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pleck, J. H. (1987). The theory of male sex-role identity: Its rise and fall, 1936 to the present. In H. Brod (Ed.) The Making of Masculinities. Boston: Allen and Unwin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pottie, C. G., & Ingram, K. M. (2008). Daily stress, coping, and well-being in parents of children with autism: A multilevel modeling approach. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(6), 855.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rodrigue, J. R., Morgan, S. B., & Geffken, G. R. (1992). Psychosocial adaptation of fathers of children with autism, down syndrome, and normal development. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 22(2), 249–263.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sandin, S., Schendel, D., Magnusson, P., Hultman, C., Surén, P., Susser, E., et al. (2016). Autism risk associated with parental age and with increasing difference in age between the parents. Molecular Psychiatry, 21(5), 693–700. doi:10.1038/mp.2015.70.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M., & Darling, R. B. (2007). Ordinary families, special children: A systems approach to childhood disability (3rd edn.). New York: Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shezifi, O. (2004). When men become fathers: A qualitative investigation of the psychodynamic aspects of the transition to fatherhood. Unpublished doctorate dissertation. Alliant International University California, United States of America.

  • Shyu, Y., Tsai, J., & Tsai, W. (2010). Explaining and selecting treatments for autism: Parental explanatory models in Taiwan. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 40, 1323–1331. doi:10.1007/s10803-010-0991-1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, A., Urbano, A., Haston, M., & McMahan, E. (2010). School counselors’ strategies for social justice change: A grounded theory of what works in the real world. Professional School Counseling, 13(3), 135–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strauss, A., & Corbin, J. (1990). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y. W. (2008). Qualitative research. In P. P. Heppner, B. Wampold, & D. M. Kivlighan (Eds.), Research design in counseling (3rd edn., pp. 256–295). Belmont, CA: Thomson Brooks/Cole.

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors extend their sincere thanks to the Office of the Dean in the College of Education and Human Services at Montclair State University, assistants Jane Penola and Kelly Venezia for their support on this project, and to the fathers who so willingly shared their important stories.

Author Contributions

MDH conceived, designed, and coordinated the study, performed analysis and interpretation of the data, and drafted the manuscript. LVH performed analysis and interpretation of the data and helped draft the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Counseling and Educational Leadership, College of Education and Human Services, Montclair State University, 3190 University Hall, 1 Normal Avenue, Montclair, NJ, 07043, USA

    Michael D. Hannon

  2. Program in Teacher Education/Teacher Development, College of Education and Human Services, Montclair State University, Montclair, USA

    LaChan V. Hannon

Authors
  1. Michael D. Hannon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. LaChan V. Hannon
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to LaChan V. Hannon.

Ethics declarations

Ethical Approval

All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Electronic supplementary material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

Supplementary material 1 (PDF 132 KB)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Hannon, M.D., Hannon, L.V. Fathers’ Orientation to their Children’s Autism Diagnosis: A Grounded Theory Study. J Autism Dev Disord 47, 2265–2274 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3149-6

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3149-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation