Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD) scale: A Latent Profile Analysis with At-Risk Adolescents

  • Published:
Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD; Salekin in Pers Disord: Theory Res Treat 7:180–191, 2016) scale was designed to assess interrelated psychopathic trait domains in conjunction with symptoms of Conduct Disorder (CD) in children and adolescents (i.e., grandiose-manipulative, callous-unemotional, daring-impulsive). Variable-centered studies have provided support for a four-factor PSCD structure (Salekin et al. in Psychol Assess 34(10):985–992, 2022) in line with other adolescent and adult studies. The current person-centered study used latent profile analysis of the PSCD domains to examine whether theoretically meaningful and empirically robust PSCD subtypes emerged from a diverse sample (70.9% White, 20.1% Black, 3.6% Hispanic, and 5.4% other) of adolescents (modal age = 17) in a military style residential facility (N = 409; Males = 80.6%). As hypothesized, a four-class solution was best, consistent with adult psychopathy subtyping research (Hare et al. in Handbook of Psychopathy 39–79, 2018; Roy et al. in Pers Disord: Theory Res Treat, in press). The PSCD subtype profiles were uniform across sex and race/ethnicity. Adolescents evincing a psychopathic trait propensity profile (elevated on all four PSCD domains) displayed the greatest number of arrests and higher overall externalizing psychopathology, compared to the other three latent classes, as well as higher internalizing psychopathology compared to adolescents with general delinquency. The PSCD provides a sound measure of psychopathic trait propensities in youth and our results offer investigators and clinicians a means for understanding person-centered psychopathic traits versus antisocial profiles among at-risk adolescents. Taken together, the current results may offer a viable approach for examining specific treatment targets based on PSCD subtype profiles.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. As discussed by Correll et al. “Cohen offered definitions of t-shirt-like sizing: small, medium, and large effects. The idea was that, by using these definitions, a researcher could make a less-than-wild guess in the absence of data.” But at the same time, “offered these definitions as a last resort…”.

  2. LPAs reported are for scales from the 13-item PSCD, given the strength of its model fit (Salekin et al., 2022). The same pattern of results was found when the scales from the 24-item PSCD were used. We also re-ran the MANOVA for class separation effect size with the PAI-A validity scales as covariates (available by request). The covariate effect was significant for the 24-item version, only for the CD scale with small effect size (η2 = 0.03), but not the 13-item model. Still, class separation remained strong in both MANCOVAs (η2 = 0.51; η2 = 0.58, respectively).

  3. MANOVAs for the external correlates with and without PAI-A validity indices as covariates were highly similar. The η2’s for the subtype multivariate effect for INT/EXT DVs, and arrest number with vs. without covariates were: 0.13/0.15; 0.09/0.11. Notably, the psychopathic trait subtype also had significantly higher INT scores than the callous subtype (p < 0.05) when the covariates were used.

  4. There were too few females in the psychopathic subtype profile for meaningful 2-factor (subtype x sex) MANOVA. However, additional Oneway ANOVAs carried out separately by sex revealed the same pattern of results as for the combined sample analyses.

References

  • Andershed, H., Colins, O. F., Salekin, R. T., Lordos, A., Kyranides, M. N., & Fanti, K. A. (2018). Callous-unemotional traits only versus the multidimensional psychopathy construct as predictors of various antisocial outcomes during early adolescence. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 40(1), 16–25.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baskin-Sommers, A. R., Curtin, J. J., & Newman, J. P. (2015). Altering the cognitive-affective dysfunctions of psychopathic and externalizing offender subtypes with cognitive remediation. Clinical Psychological Science, 3(1), 45–57.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bolt, D. M., Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S. (2007). Score metric equivalence of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) across criminal offenders in North America and the United Kingdom: A critique of Cooke, Michie, Hart, and Clark (2005) and new analyses. Assessment, 14(1), 44–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, M. F., Skeem, J. L., Salekin, R. T., & Van Rybroek, G. J. (2006). Treatment response of adolescent offenders with psychopathic traits: A 2-year follow-up. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 33, 571–596. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093854806288176

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caldwell, M. F., & Van Rybroek, G. (2013). Effective treatment programs for violent adolescents: Programmatic challenges and promising features. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 18(5), 571–578.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Castillo-Eito, L., Armitage, C. J., Norman, P., Day, M. R., Dogru, O. C., & Rowe, R. (2020). How can adolescent aggression be reduced? A Multi-Level Meta-Analysis. Clinical Psychology Review, 78, 101853.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, A. B., Fleming, G. E., Kaouar, S., & Kimonis, E. R. (2023). The measure of empathy in early childhood: Testing the reliability, validity, and clinical utility of scores in early childhood. Psychological Assessment. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0001257. Advance online.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cheng, Y., Chen, C., & Decety, J. (2014). An EEG/ERP investigation of the development of empathy in early and middle childhood. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 10, 160–169.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, L. A., & Watson, D. (1995). Constructing validity: Basic issues in objective scale development. Psychological Assessment, 7, 309–319.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cleckley, H. (1941/1988). The mask of sanity (1st and 6th eds.). Mosby.

  • Colins, O. F., Andershed, H., Salekin, R. T., & Fanti, K. A. (2018). Comparing different approaches for subtyping children with conduct problems; Callous-unemotional traits only versus the multidimensional psychopathy construct. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 40(1), 6–15.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Colins, O. F., Andershed, H., Frogner, L., Lopez-Romero, L., Veen, V., & Andershed, A. K. (2014). A new measure to assess psychopathic personality in children: The Child Problematic Traits Inventory. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 36, 4–21.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colins, O. F., Bisback, A., Reculé, C., Batky, B. D., Lopez-Romero, L., Hare, R. D., & Salekin, R. T. (2023). The Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD) Scale: Factor structure and validation of the self-report version in a forensic sample of Belgian youth. Assessment, 30(4), 1302–1320.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Colins, O. F., Fanti, K. A., Salekin, R. T., & Andershed, H. (2017). Psychopathic personality in the general population: Differences and similarities across gender. Journal of Personality Disorders, 31(1), 49.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Conijn, J. M., Smits, N., & Hartman, E. E. (2020). Determining at What Age Children Provide Sound Self-Reports: An Illustration of the Validity-Index Approach. Assessment, 27(7), 1604–1618.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Correll, J., Mellinger, C., McClelland, G. H., & Judd, C. M. (2020). Avoid Cohen’s ‘small’, ‘medium’, and ‘large’for power analysis. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 24(3), 200–207.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dadds, M. R., Hawes, D. J., Frost, A. D., Vassallo, S., Bunn, P., Hunter, K., & Merz, S. (2009). Learning to ‘talk the talk’: The relationship of psychopathic traits to deficits in empathy across childhood. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(5), 599–606.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • De Brito, S. A., Forth, A. E., Baskin-Sommers, A. R., Brazil, I. A., Kimonis, E. R., Pardini, D., & Viding, E. (2021). Psychopathy. Nature Reviews Disease Primers, 7(1), 1–21.

    Google Scholar 

  • De Caluwé, E., Decuyper, M., & De Clercq, B. (2013). The child behavior checklist dysregulation profile predicts adolescent DSM-5 pathological personality traits 4 years later. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 22, 401–411.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Decety, J., & Holvoet, C. (2021). The emergence of empathy: A developmental neuroscience perspective. Developmental Review, 62, 100999.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dirks, M. A., De Los Reyes, A., Briggs-Gowan, M., Cella, D., & Wakschlag, L. S. (2012). Annual research review: Embracing not erasing contextual variability in children’s behavior—theory and utility in the selection and use of methods and informants in developmental psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 53, 558–574.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drabick, D. A., Gadow, K. D., & Loney, J. A. N. (2007). Source-specific oppositional defiant disorder: Comorbidity and risk factors in referred elementary schoolboys. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 46(1), 92–101.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Driessen, J. M. A., Fanti, K. A., Glennon, J. C., Neumann, C. S., Baskin-Sommers, A. R., & Brazil, I. A. (2018). A comparison of latent profiles in antisocial male offenders. Journal of Criminal Justice, 57, 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2018.04.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forsman, M., Lichtenstein, P., Andershed, H., & Larsson, H. (2010). A longitudinal twin study of the direction of effects between psychopathic personality and antisocial behaviour. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(1), 39–47.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Forth, A. E., Kosson, D. S., & Hare, R. D. (2003). The Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version. Multi Health Systems.

  • Frick, P. J., Kimonis, E. R., Dandreaux, D. M., & Farell, J. M. (2003). The 4 year stability of psychopathic traits in non-referred youth. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 21(6), 713–736.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J., Ray, J. V., Thornton, L. C., & Kahn, R. E. (2014). Can callous-unemotional traits enhance the understanding, diagnosis, and treatment of serious conduct problems in children and adolescents? A comprehensive review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(1), 1–57. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033076

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frick, P. J. (2022a). Some critical considerations in applying the construct of psychopathy to research and classification of childhood disruptive behavior disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 102188.

  • Frick, P. J. (2022b). We do know that multiple dimensions of psychopathy can contribute to research on and diagnosis of conduct disorder: The question is how. Clinical Psychology Review, 102215.

  • Garofalo, C., Neumann, C. S., & Mark, D. (2020a). Associations between psychopathy and the trait meta-mood scale in incarcerated males: A combined latent variable-and person-centered approach. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 47(3), 331–351.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garofalo, C., Neumann, C. S., Kosson, D. S., & Velotti, P. (2020b). Psychopathy and emotion dysregulation: More than meets the eye. Psychiatry Research, 290, 113160.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Garofalo, C., Neumann, C. S., & Velotti, P. (2018). Difficulties in emotion regulation and psychopathic traits in violent offenders. Journal of Criminal Justice, 57, 116–125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hallquist, M. N., & Wright, A. G. C. (2014). Mixture modeling methods for the assessment of normal and abnormal personality, part I: Cross-sectional models. Journal of Personality Assessment, 96(3), 256–268. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223891.2013.845201

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hare, R. D. (2003). Manual for the revised Hare Psychopathy Checklist (2nd ed.). Multi Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hare, R. D., León-Mayer, E., Salinas, J. R., Folino, J., & Neumann, C. S. (2022). Psychopathy and crimes against humanity: A conceptual and empirical examination of human rights violators. Journal of Criminal Justice, 81, 101901.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S. (2008). Psychopathy as a clinical and empirical construct. Annual Review Clinical Psychology, 4, 217–246.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hare, R. D., & Neumann, C. S. (2010). The role of antisociality in the psychopathy construct: Comment on Skeem and Cooke (2010). Psychological Assessment, 22(2), 446–454.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hare, R. D., Neumann, C. S., & Mokros, A. (2018). The PCL-R assessment of psychopathy: Development, properties, debates, and new directions. In C. J. Patrick (Ed.), Handbook of psychopathy (pp. 39–79). The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, B. M., Clark, D. A., & Durbin, C. E. (2017). Person-centered approaches in the study of personality disorders. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 8(4), 288–297. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000212

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hollerbach, P., Olderbak, S., Wilhelm, O., Montag, C., Jung, S., Neumann, C. S., & Mokros, A. (2021). Associations of the MAOA uVNTR genotype and 5-HTTLPR/rs25531 haplotype with psychopathic traits. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 131, 105275.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Klein Haneveld, E., Neumann, C. S., Smid, W., Wever, E., & Kamphuis, J. H. (2018). Treatment responsiveness of replicated psychopathy profiles. Law and Human Behavior, 42(5), 484–495. https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000305

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krstic, S., Neumann, C. S., Roy, S., Robertson, C. A., Knight, R. A., & Hare, R. D. (2018). Using latent variable- and person-centered approaches to examine the role of psychopathic traits in sex offenders. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 9(3), 207–216. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000249

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krueger, R. F., & Markon, K. E. (2006). Reinterpreting comorbidity: A model-based approach to understanding and classifying psychopathology. Annual. Review of Clinical Psychology, 2, 111–133.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kubak, F. A., & Salekin, R. T. (2009). Psychopathy and anxiety in children and adolescents: New insights on developmental pathways to offending. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 31, 271–284.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Larsson, H., Tuvblad, C., Rijsdijk, F. V., Andershed, H., Grann, M., & Lichtenstein, P. (2007). A common genetic factor explains the association between psychopathic personality and antisocial behavior. Psychological Medicine, 37(1), 15–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lehmann, R. J. B., Neumann, C. S., Hare, R. D., Biedermann, J., Dahle, K. P., & Mokros, A. (2019). A latent profile analysis of violent offenders based on PCL-R factor scores: Criminogenic needs and recidivism risk. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10, 627.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lilienfeld, S. O., Smith, S. F., & Watts, A. L. (2017). Diagnosis: Conceptual issues and controversies. In Craighead, et al. (Eds.), Psychopathology: History, diagnosis and empirical foundations (pp. 1–38). New York: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lima, F. F. D., & Osório, F. D. L. (2021). Empathy: Assessment instruments and psychometric quality–a systematic literature review with a meta-analysis of the past ten years. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 781346.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Loeber, R., Burke, J., & Pardini, D. A. (2009). Perspectives on oppositional defiant disorder, conduct disorder, and psychopathic features. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 50(1–2), 133–142. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2008.02011.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • López-Romero, L., Romero, E., Colins, O. F., Andreshed, H., Hare, R. D., & Salekin, R. T. (2019). Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD): Preliminary validation of the parent version in a Spanish sample of preschoolers. Psychological Assessment, 31, 1357–1367.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • López-Romero, L., Colins, O. F., Fanti, K., Salekin, R. T., Romero, E., & Andershed, H. (2022a). Testing the predictive and incremental validity of callous-unemotional traits versus the multidimensional psychopathy construct in preschool children. Journal of Criminal Justice, 80, 101744.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • López-Romero, L., Cutrín, O., Maneiro, L., & Salekin, R. T. (2022b). Proposed specifiers for conduct disorder-short version (PSCD-SV): Psychometric properties, concurrent correlates and parenting predictors. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 1–16.

  • López-Romero, L., Romero, E., Salekin, R. T., Andershed, H., & Colins, O. F. (2021). Studying configurations of psychopathic traits: Exploring the viability of psychopathic personality in early childhood. Journal of Personality Disorders, 35(Supplement C), 97–118.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez-Romero, L., Cutrín, O., Maneiro, L., & Salekin, R. T. (2023). Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder-Short Version (PSCD-SV): Psychometric properties, concurrent correlates and parenting predictors. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 54(5), 1258–1273.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lucas-Molina, B., Sarmento, R., Quintanilla, L., & Giménez-Dasí, M. (2018). The Spanish version of the Empathy Questionnaire (EmQue): Evidence for longitudinal measurement invariance and relationship with emotional regulation. Early Education and Development, 29(4), 467–476.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Luo, S., Wang, M.-C., Neumann, C. S., Hare, R. D., & Salekin, R. T. (2021). Factor structure and construct validity of the Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD) in Chinese adolescents. Assessment, 28(7), 1765–1784. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191120949914

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luo, J., Wang, X., Wang, M. C., Zhang, X., Deng, J., Zhong, C., & Qi, S. S. (2019). Longitudinal measurement invariance of the Child Problematic Trait Inventory in older Chinese children. Plos One, 14(7), e0219136.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lynam, D. R., Hoyle, R. H., & Newman, J. P. (2006). The perils of partialling: Cautionary tales from aggression and psychopathy. Assessment, 13(3), 328–341.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Mokros, A., Hare, R. D., Neumann, C. S., Santtila, P., Habermeyer, E., & Nitschke, J. (2015). Variants of psychopathy in adult male offenders: A latent profile analysis. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 124(2), 372.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mokros, A., Hare, R. D., Neumann, C. S., & Habermeyer, E. (2020). Subtypes and variations of psychopathic disorders. The Wiley international handbook on psychopathic disorders and the law (pp. 107–143).

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Morey, L. C. (2007). Personality assessment inventory- adolescent (PAI-A) professional manual. Psychological Assessment Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray, L., Waller, R., & Hyde, L. W. (2018). A systematic review examining the link between psychopathic personality traits, antisocial behavior, and neural reactivity during reward and loss processing. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 9(6), 497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muthén, L. K., & Muthén, B. O. (1998–2017). Mplus users’ guide (8th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthén and Muthén.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, C. S., Kosson, D. S., Forth, A. E., & Hare, R. D. (2006). Factor structure of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist: Youth Version (PCL: YV) in incarcerated adolescents. Psychological Assessment, 18(2), 142–154. https://doi.org/10.1037/1040-3590.18.2.142

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, C. S., & Hare, R. D. (2008). Psychopathic traits in a large community sample: Links to violence, alcohol use, and intelligence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 76(5), 893–899.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, C. S., Hare, R. D., & Newman, J. P. (2007). The super-ordinate nature of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised. Journal of Personality Disorders, 21(2), 102.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, C. S., Hare, R. D., & Pardini, D. A. (2015a). Antisociality and the construct of psychopathy: Data from across the globe. Journal of Personality, 83, 678–692.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, C. S., Kaufman, S. B., ten Brinke, L., Yaden, D. B., Hyde, E., & Tsykayama, E. (2020). Light and dark trait subtypes of human personality–A multi-study person-centered approach. Personality and Individual Differences, 164, 110121.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, C. S., Jones, D. N., & Paulhus, D. L. (2021). Examining the Short Dark Tetrad (SD4) across models, correlates, and gender. Assessment. 1073191120986624.

  • Neumann, C. S., Schmitt, D. S., Carter, R., Embley, I., & Hare, R. D. (2012). Psychopathic traits in females and males across the globe. Behavioral Sciences & the Law, 30(5), 557–574.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, C. S., Uzieblo, K., Crombez, G., & Hare, R. D. (2013). Understanding the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) in terms of the unidimensionality, orthogonality, and construct validity of PPI-I and -II. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 4(1), 77–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, C. S., Vitacco, M. J., Hare, R. D., & Wupperman, P. (2005). Reconstruing the “reconstruction” of psychopathy: A comment on Cooke, Michie, Hart, and Clark. Journal of Personality Disorders, 19(6), 624–640.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, C. S., Vitacco, M., Robertson, A., & Sewell, K. (2003). Longitudinal assessment of callous/impulsive traits, substance abuse, and symptoms of depression in adolescents: A latent variable approach. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1008(1), 276–280.

    Article  ADS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, C. S., Vitacco, M. J., & Mokros, A. S. (2015b). Using both variable-centered and person-centered approaches to understanding psychopathic personality. The clinical and forensic assessment of psychopathy (pp. 14–31). Routledge.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Neumann, C., Wampler, M., Taylor, J., Blonigen, D. M., & Iacono, W. G. (2011). Stability and invariance of psychopathic traits from late adolescence to young adulthood. Journal of Research in Personality, 45(2), 145–152.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nylund, K. L., Asparoutiov, T., & Muthén, B. O. (2007). Deciding on the number of classes in latent class analysis and growth mixture modeling: A Monte Carlo simulation study. Structural Equation Modeling-A Multidisciplinary Journal, 14(4), 535–569.

    Article  MathSciNet  Google Scholar 

  • Olver, M. E., Neumann, C. S., Sewall, L. A., Lewis, K., Hare, R. D., & Wong, S. C. (2018). A comprehensive examination of the psychometric properties of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist-Revised in a Canadian multisite sample of indigenous and non-indigenous offenders. Psychological Assessment, 30(6), 779.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Olver, M. E., Stockdale, K. C., Neumann, C. S., Hare, R. D., Mokros, A., Baskin-Sommers, A., Brand, E., Folino, J., Gacono, C., Gray, N. S., Kiehl, K., Knight, R., Leon-Mayer, E., Logan, M., Meloy, J. R., Roy, S., Salekin, R. T., Snowden, R., Thomson, N., & Yoon, D. (2020). Reliability and validity of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised in the assessment of risk for institutional violence: A cautionary note on DeMatteo et al. (2020). Psychology, Public Policy, and Law, 26(4), 490–510.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ornaghi, V., Conte, E., & Grazzani, I. (2020). Empathy in toddlers: The role of emotion regulation, language ability, and maternal emotion socialization style. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 586862.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Pisano, S., Muratori, P., Gorga, C., Levantini, V., Iuliano, R., Catone, G., Coppola, G., Milone, A., & Masi, G. (2017). Conduct disorders and psychopathy in children and adolescents: Aetiology, clinical presentation and treatment strategies of callous-unemotional traits. Italian Journal of Pediatrics, 43(1), 84. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13052-017-0404-6

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ray, J. V., Frick, P. J., Thornton, L. C., Steinberg, L., & Cauffman, E. (2016). Positive and negative item wording and its influence on the assessment of callous-unemotional traits. Psychological Assessment, 28(4), 394–404. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0000183

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ribeiro da Silva, D., Rijo, D., Brazão, N., Paulo, M., Miguel, M., Castilho, P., Vargos, P., Gilbert, P., & Salekin, R. T. (2021). The efficacy of the psychopathy.comp program in reducing psychopathic traits: A controlled trial with male detained youth. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 89(6), 499–513. https://doi.org/10.1037/ccp0000659

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rost, J. (2006). Latent-Class-Analyse [Latent class analysis]. In F. Petermann & M. Eid (Eds.), Handbuch der psychologischen Diagnostik [Handbook of psychological assessment] (pp. 275–287). Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roy, S., Neumann, C. S., & Hare, R. D. (in press). Validating latent profiles of the Psychopathy Checklist-Revised (PCL-R) with a large sample of incarcerated men. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment.

  • Roy, S., Vize, C., Uzieblo, K., van Dongen, J. D. M., Miller, J., Lynam, D., Brazil, I., Yoon, D., Mokros, A., Gray, N. S., Snowden, R., & Neumann, C. S. (2021a). Triarchic or septarchic?—Uncovering the Triarchic Psychopathy Measure’s (TriPM) structure. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 12(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000392

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roy, S., Vize, C., Uzieblo, K., van Dongen, J. D. M., Miller, J. D., Lynam, D. R., Brazil, I., Yoon, D., Mokros, A., Gray, N. S., Snowden, R., & Neumann, C. S. (2021b). The perils of untested assumptions in theory testing: A reply to Patrick et al. (2020). Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 12(1), 24–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000461

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salekin, R. T. (2022). Some critical comments on the Frick (2022) paper titled “Some critical considerations in applying the construct of psychopathy to research and classification of childhood disruptive behavior disorders”. Clinical Psychology Review, 102214. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2022.102214

  • Salekin, R. T. (2017). Research review: What do we know about psychopathic traits in children? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 58, 1180–1200. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12738

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salekin, R. T. (2016). Psychopathy in childhood: Toward better informing the DSM-5 and ICD-11 conduct disorder specifiers. Personality Disorders: Theory, Research, and Treatment, 7, 180–191. https://doi.org/10.1037/per0000150

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salekin, R. T., Andershed, H., Batky, B. D., & Bontemps, A. P. (2018). Are callous unemotional (CU) traits enough? Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 40(1), 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-018-9663-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salekin, R. T., Charles, N. E., Barry, C. T., Hare, R. D., Batky, B. D., Mendez, B., & Neumann, C. S. (2022). Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD): Factor structure and psychometric properties in a residential school facility. Psychological Assessment, 34(10), 985–992. https://doi.org/10.1037/pas0001162

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salekin, R. T., Leistico, A. M. R., Neumann, C. S., DiCicco, T. M., & Duros, R. L. (2004). Psychopathy and comorbidity in a young offender sample: Taking a closer look at psychopathy’s potential importance over disruptive behavior disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113(3), 416. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.113.3.416

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Salekin, R. T., Rogers, R., & Sewell, K. W. (1996). A review and meta-analysis of the Psychopathy Checklist and Psychopathy Checklist—Revised: Predictive validity of dangerousness. Clinical Psychology: Science and practice, 3(3), 203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, N. (1996). Uses and abuses of coefficient alpha. Psychological Assessment, 8(4), 350.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sesso, G., Brancati, G. E., Fantozzi, P., Inguaggiato, E., Milone, A., & Masi, G. (2021). Measures of empathy in children and adolescents: A systematic review of questionnaires. World Journal of Psychiatry, 11(10), 876.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tein, J. Y., Coxe, S., & Cham, H. (2013). Statistical power to detect the correct number of classes in latent profile analysis. Structural Equation Modeling, 20(4), 640–657. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2013.824781

    Article  MathSciNet  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Varni, J. W., Limbers, C. A., & Burwinkle, T. M. (2007). How young can children reliably and validly self-report their health-related quality of life?: an analysis of 8,591 children across age subgroups with the PedsQL 4.0 Generic Core Scales. Health and Quality of Life Outcomes, 5, 1. https://doi.org/10.1186/1477-7525-5-1

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Vitacco, M. J., Neumann, C. S., & Jackson, R. L. (2005). Testing a four-factor model of psychopathy and its association with ethnicity, gender, intelligence, and violence. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73(3), 466.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vermunt, J., & Magison, J. (2002). Latent class cluster analysis. In J. Hagenaars & A. McCutcheon (Eds.), Applied latent class analysis (pp. 89–106). Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Waller, R., Wagner, N. J., Barstead, M. G., Subar, A., Petersen, J. L., Hyde, J. S., & Hyde, L. W. (2020). A meta-analysis of the associations between callous-unemotional traits and empathy, prosociality, and guilt. Clinical Psychology Review, 75, 101809.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Waltes, R., Chiocchetti, A. G., & Freitag, C. M. (2016). The neurobiological basis of human aggression: A review on genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. American Journal of Medical Genetics Part B: Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 171(5), 650–675.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of North Texas, Denton, TX, US

    Craig S. Neumann & Ella Commerce

  2. University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, AL, US

    Randall T. Salekin & Beatriz Mendez

  3. University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, US

    Nora E. Charles

  4. Washington State University, Pullman, WA, US

    Christopher T. Barry

  5. University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, US

    Robert D. Hare

Authors
  1. Craig S. Neumann
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Randall T. Salekin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ella Commerce
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Nora E. Charles
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Christopher T. Barry
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Beatriz Mendez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Robert D. Hare
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Craig S. Neumann.

Ethics declarations

Ethical Approval

All procedures were approved by the institutional review board of the university at which the third author is affiliated. The Director of the program, who serves as the guardian ad litem for the adolescents during the enrollment period provided informed consent for youths to be initially invited to participate in the study.

Informed Consent

All participants were subsequently provided an opportunity to assent (or dissent) to participate in the study and could opt out at any time.

Competing Interests

The authors do not have financial or non-financial competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Neumann, C.S., Salekin, R.T., Commerce, E. et al. Proposed Specifiers for Conduct Disorder (PSCD) scale: A Latent Profile Analysis with At-Risk Adolescents. Res Child Adolesc Psychopathol 52, 369–383 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-023-01126-0

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-023-01126-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation