Skip to main content
Log in

Longitudinal Outcomes of Child Parent Psychotherapy: Response to Commentaries

  • Published:
Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In response to the commentaries provided by Chu et al. (2020), Harmon et al. (2020), and McMahon & Maxwell (2020) on our longitudinal follow-up of Child-Parent Psychotherapy (CPP) with mothers with depression and their children, we focus on two domains: accessibility and scalability of CPP and identifying empirically supported mechanisms of change in attachment intervention research. In considering the accessibility and scalability of CPP, we discuss issues related to attrition, length of intervention, and implementation with caregivers with depression. Our discussion of mechanisms of change in attachment interventions explores active comparison conditions, theorized mediators, intervention modalities, assessment methods, and longitudinal research designs. This conversation is intended to highlight important areas for future research in the field of attachment interventions, with the goal of informing clinical and systems-level policies and practices.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ainsworth M. S., Blehar M. C., Waters E., Wall S. Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation. (1978). Oxford. Lawrence Erlbaum.

  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2003). Less is more: Meta-analyses of sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood. Psychological Bulletin, 129(2), 195–215. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.2.195

  • Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., van IJzendoorn, M. H., & Juffer, F. (2005). Disorganized infant attachment and preventive interventions: A review and meta-analysis. Infant Mental Health Journal, 26(3), 191–216. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.20046

  • Cassidy, J., Brett, B. E., Gross,  J. T., Stern, J. A., Martin, D. R., Mohr, J. J., Woodhouse, S. S.,  (2017) Circle of security–parenting: A randomized controlled trial in Head Start Development and Psychopathology 29(2), 651-673. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417000244

  • Cerulli, C., Cicchetti, D., Handley, E. D., Manly, J. T., Rogosch, F. A., Toth S. L., (2021) Transforming the Paradigm of child welfare Development and Psychopathology 1–17 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579420002138

  • Chu, A. T., Ippen, C. G., & Lieberman, A. F. (2020). It’s all about the relationship: The role of attachment in Child-Parent Psychotherapy. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology.

  • Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2000). The efficacy of toddler-parent psychotherapy for fostering cognitive development in offspring of depressed mothers. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28(2), 135–148. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1005118713814

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., Rogosch, F. A., & Toth, S. L. (2006). Fostering secure attachment in infants in maltreating families through preventive interventions. Development and Psychopathology, 18(3), 623–649. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579406060329

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cicchetti, D., Toth, S. L., & Rogosch, F. A. (1999). The efficacy of toddler-parent psychotherapy to increase attachment security in offspring of depressed mothers. Attachment & Human Development, 1(1), 34–66. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616739900134021

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dozier, M., Higley, E., Albus, K. E., & Nutter, A. (2002). Intervening with foster infants’ caregivers: Targeting three critical needs. Infant Mental Health Journal, 23(5), 541–554. https://doi.org/10.1002/imhj.10032

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Facompré, C. R., Bernard, K., & Waters, T. E. A. (2018). Effectiveness of interventions in preventing disorganized attachment: A meta-analysis. Development and Psychopathology, 30(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417000426

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fearon, R. M. P., & Belsky, J. (2016). Precursors of attachment. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research and clinical applications (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

  • Guild, D. J., Toth, S. L., Handley, E. D., Rogosch, F. A., & Cicchetti, D. (2017). Attachment security mediates the longitudinal association between child–parent psychotherapy and peer relations for toddlers of depressed mothers. Development and Psychopathology 29(2), 587–600. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417000207

  • Harmon, S. L., Hersh, J., Wei, M. A., & Weisz, J. R. (2020). Addressing the long-term effects of maternal depression through early intervention. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology.

  • Hembree-Kigin, T. L., & McNeil, C. B. (1995). Parent–child interaction therapy (pp. xiii, 169). Plenum Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4899-1439-2

  • Ghosh Ippen, C., Harris, W. W., Van Horn, P., & Lieberman, A. F. (2011). Traumatic and stressful events in early childhood: Can treatment help those at highest risk? Child Abuse & Neglect, 35(7), 504–513. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2011.03.009

  • Jones, K., Daley, D., Hutchings, J., Bywater, T., & Eames, C. (2007). Efficacy of the incredible years basic parent training programme as an early intervention for children with conduct problems and ADHD. Child: Care, Health and Development, 33(6), 749–756. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2214.2007.00747.x

  • Kohlhoff, J., Cibralic, S., Wallace, N., Morgan, S., McMahon, C., Hawkins, E., Eapen, V., Briggs, N., Huber, A., & McNeil, C. (2020). A randomized controlled trial comparing parent child interaction therapy - toddler, circle of security– parentingTM and waitlist controls in the treatment of disruptive behaviors for children aged 14–24 months: Study protocol. BMC Psychology, 8(1), 93. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-00457-7

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lanier, P., Kohl, P. L., Benz, J., Swinger, D., Moussette, P., & Drake, B. (2011). Parent–child interaction therapy in a community setting: Examining outcomes, attrition, and treatment setting. Research on Social Work Practice, 1(6), 689–698. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731511406551

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, A. F., Weston, D. R., & Pawl, J. H. (1991). Preventive intervention and outcome with anxiously attached dyads. Child Development, 62(1), 199–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lieberman, A. F., Ghosh Ippen, C., & Van Horn, P. (2015). Don’t Hit My Mommy! A Manual for Child-Parent Psychotherapy With Young Children Exposed to Violence and Other Trauma (2nd edition). National Center for Clinical Infant Programs.

  • Lieberman, A. F., Van Horn, P., & Ghosh Ippen, C. (2005). Toward evidence-based treatment: Child-parent psychotherapy with preschoolers exposed to marital violence. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 44(12), 1241–1248. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.chi.0000181047.59702.58

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons-Ruth, K., & Jacobvitz, D. (2016). Attachment disorganization: Genetic factors, parenting contexts, and developmental transformation from infancy to adulthood. In J. C. P. Shaver (Ed.), Handbook of attachment: Theory, research, and clinical applications (pp. 667–696). Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marvin, R., Cooper, G., Hoffman, K., & Powell, B. (2002). The circle of security project: Attachment-based intervention with caregiver-pre-school child dyads. Attachment & Human Development, 4(1), 107–124. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616730252982491

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McMahon, C. A., & Maxwell, A. M. (2020). Commentary on Guild et al. (2020): The importance of well-designed intervention studies for advancing attachment theory and its clinical applications. Research on Child and Adolescent Psychopathology. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-020-00702-y

  • Mountain, G., Cahill, J., & Thorpe, H. (2017). Sensitivity and attachment interventions in early childhood: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Infant Behavior and Development, 46, 14–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2016.10.006

  • National Child Traumatic Stress Network (2012b). Child-parent psychotherapy [Fact sheet]. https://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/interventions/cpp_fact_sheet.pdf

  • Nixon, R. D. V., Sweeney, L., Erickson, D. B., & Touyz, S. W. (2003). Parent-child interaction therapy: A comparison of standard and abbreviated treatments for oppositional defiant preschoolers. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(2), 251–260. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.71.2.251

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peltz, J. S., Rogge, R. D., Rogosch, F. A., Cicchetti, D., & Toth, S. L. (2015). The benefits of child-parent psychotherapy to marital satisfaction. Families, Systems, & Health, 33(4), 372–382. https://doi.org/10.1037/fsh0000149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, R. A. (2016). Early attachment and later development: Reframing the questions. In J. Cassidy & P. R. Shaver (Eds.), Handbook of attachment (3rd Ed.) (pp. 330–348). New York: Guilford.

  • Toth, S. L., Alto, M. E., & Warmingham, J. (2021). Attachment-based intervention processes in disordered relationships. In R. A. Thompson, J. Simpson, and L. Berlin (Eds.), Attachment: The fundamental questions. Guilford Press.

  • Toth, S. L., Maughan, A., Manly, J. T., Spagnola, M., & Cicchetti, D. (2002). The relative efficacy of two interventions in altering maltreated preschool children’s representational models: Implications for attachment theory. Development and Psychopathology, 14(4), 877–908. https://doi.org/10.1017/s095457940200411x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Toth, S. L., Rogosch, F. A., Manly, J. T., & Cicchetti, D. (2006). The efficacy of toddler-parent psychotherapy to reorganize attachment in the young offspring of mothers with major depressive disorder: A randomized preventive trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(6), 1006–1016. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.6.1006

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Van Zeijl, J., Mesman, J., & Van IJzendoorn, M. H., Bakermans-Kranenburg, M. J., Juffer, F., Stolk, M. N., Koot, H. M., & Alink, L. R. A. (2006). Attachment-based intervention for enhancing sensitive discipline in mothers of 1- to 3-year-old children at risk for externalizing behavior problems: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 74(6), 994–1005. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.74.6.994

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Webb, H. J., Thomas, R., McGregor, L., Avdagic, E., & Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J. (2017). An evaluation of parent–child interaction therapy with and without motivational enhancement to reduce attrition. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 46(4), 537–550. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2016.1247357

  • Webster-Stratton, C. (1981). Videotape modeling: A method of parent education. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 10(2), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374418109533023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weiner, D. A., Schneider, A., & Lyons, J. S. (2009). Evidence-based treatments for trauma among culturally diverse foster care youth: Treatment retention and outcomes. Children and Youth Services Review, 31(11), 1199–1205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2009.08.013

  • Yarger, H. A., Bronfman, E., Carlson, E., & Dozier, M. (2020). Intervening with attachment and biobehavioral catch-up to decrease disrupted parenting behavior and attachment disorganization: The role of parental withdrawal. Development and Psychopathology, 32(3), 1139–1148. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000786

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Zajac, L., Raby, K. L., & Dozier, M. (2020). Sustained effects on attachment security in middle childhood: Results from a randomized clinical trial of the attachment and biobehavioral catch-up (ABC) intervention. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61(4), 417–424. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13146

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the NIMH under Grant R01 MH45027.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Michelle E. Alto.

Ethics declarations

Ethical Approval

Ethical approval for the original study was granted by the University of Rochester.

Informed Consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher’s Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Alto, M.E., Ross, A.J., Handley, E.D. et al. Longitudinal Outcomes of Child Parent Psychotherapy: Response to Commentaries. Res Child Adolesc Psychopathol 49, 595–601 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-021-00801-4

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-021-00801-4

Keywords

Navigation