Introduction

The approach based on human rights (ABHR) takes as a benchmark the human rights international laws to address the situation of different groups, such as the promotion of their quality of life through entrepreneurial development (Alnahedh & Alabduljader, 2021; Halberstadt et al., 2019; Olanrewaju, 2020). It is important to use this approach to follow ethical issues which are typical also within entrepreneurial process, following the Stakeholder Theory (Barrena Martinez et al., 2018; Sundaram & Inkpen, 2004) and motivating future entrepreneurs to a pro-social entrepreneurial approach (Araya-Pizarro, 2021; Sulistyani et al., 2022; Zhang & Tao, 2022).

This approach (ABHR) is defined by the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, 2006, p. 15) as “a conceptual frame for the process of human development that, from the legal perspective, is based on the international laws of human rights and from the operational perspective it is orientated to the promotion and the protection of human rights”.

Furthermore, this Organization provides arguments on the value that this approach based on human rights adds to the development: (a) the intrinsic argument, which acknowledges that the approach based on human rights is the right one from a moral, social responsibility or legal point of view, (b) the instrumental argument, which acknowledges that an approach based on human rights leads to better and more sustainable results in the field of human development Rights (Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, 2006, p. 15). (c) the importance of the use of a Human Rights approach within Organization emphasizing that this Approach encourage the Empowerment among People involved among helpers and users. It is an approach based on inter-personal skills and psychological traits which are reinforced, giving them the opportunity of improving their lives (Huby & Rees, 2005). In practice, the reason to apply an approach based on human rights is usually a fusion of both arguments, following the recent paradigm of the overcoming of the Theory of Separation and the importance of the consideration of stakeholders who are interested in improve communities, not only reaching an economic goal (Pascucci et al., 2022). And the participative character in the programming of a project from this approach requires responsibility, motivation, compromise, and leadership; authority or legitimacy of action; access to resources and their control. Specifically, from Education in human rights the empowerment of holders of human rights, potential entrepreneurial population, is promoted, as it is outlined by the corresponding Objectives of Sustainable Development in the Agenda 2030, mainly in the objective 4 and its goals (Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, 2015). That empowerment, or competence development, is only feasible by the design of public policies through the approach based on human rights.

In particular, the European Commission through the new Agenda of Skills for Europe (2016) and the Action Plan for Entrepreneurship 2020 propose working in common to improve human development, employability and competitivity, stimulating innovation and the entrepreneurial spirit, and setting education and training as the main actions, as well as reactivating the culture of entrepreneurship; main axis for Europe to go back to growth and to higher levels of employment: Europe needs more entrepreneurship through the development of skills that allow to face challenges, from approaches which facilitate reaching to specific groups (Arruti et al., 2021; Lopez-Nunez et al., 2022). The approach based on human rights is consistent with the achievement of such challenge. One of those features to develop is the entrepreneurial capacity, at the level of organizations as well as the own citizenry. The need of a superior attention to a sustainable socio-economic development has been highlighted during last years, where the pandemic caused the collapse among some national institutions and a significant psycho social impairment among populations (Pascucci, 2021). Potentiating that entrepreneurial development which the Commission supports makes us understand it as a capacity of action in the face of opportunities and ideas, converting them in value. Different aspects insist on this entrepreneurial capacity and we must consider them for its development (Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas 2015; CEDEFOP, 2019; Hernández-Cervantes, 2017; Organization for the Cooperation and Economic Development—OCED, 2018; United Nations Programme for Development—UNPD, 2016, 2019): from the set of rules and policies to educational aspects and psychosocial factors involved.

We find a strategy to achieve the compliance of these human rights in the actions that are promoted by CEDEFOP—European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training and its Lifelong Learning Platform (2019); their teachings refer to the development of key competences from a communitarian and social compromise approach. Development of key competences, among which we may find, the entrepreneurial competence that we require for self-realization and career development, employability, social integration, sustainable lifestyle, success in life in peaceful societies and active citizenship (CEDEFOP, 2019; Diario Oficial de la Unión Europea, 2018): skills that are developed with a perspective of permanent learning and can be applied to very different contexts and in diverse combinations, they overlap and intertwin. From an integrative perspective of knowledge, we stop to reflect on how the concept of competence implies reflective interaction of concepts, socially responsible values-attitudes and abilities that we as human beings acquire and apply during our socialization from permanent learning (Lucas, 2012).

And, focusing this integrative perspective in the entrepreneurial competence, in accordance with the Diario Oficial de la Unión Europea (2018). It refers to the capacity to act according to opportunities and ideas, and to transform them in values for others: within it there are skills as critical thinking, problem solving, teamwork, negotiation and communication skills, analytic capacities, creativity and intercultural skills. Much discussion has been generated in scientific literature around the concept of entrepreneurial development (Manso & Thoilliez, 2014), as in this process transversal competences, which make the actions of human beings visible in any vital decision, come into play.

They are psychosocial variables of interest to contribute to the development of social, economic and environmental career and compromise that are necessary from every entrepreneurial project and that lead our actions giving proof of who we are, of how we undertake and design our life and project it from a successful perspective, of human development (Brozmanová et al., 2019; Lucas, 2012; PNUD, 2016, 2019; Sánchez-García & Suárez-Ortega, 2018). Identifying these psychosocial variables is the purpose of the present study. That is to say, elaborating on their study, as a previous step to accompany, to generate opportunities and support with the population who wants to undertake and drive entrepreneurial experiences, being this the objective of investigation.

At present, entrepreneurial, social and civic competences increase in importance in order to ensure resilience and capacity to adjust to changes (Diario Oficial de la Unión Europea, 2018): to foster quality of life and promote personal, economic, environmental and social well-being of the general public. The concept of quality of life has become an area of special interest for the practical implementation and investigation in the fields of education, physical and mental health, social services, families, organizations and public policies (Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, 2015; Casas, 2000; OCDE, 2018; Schalock & Verdugo, 2012).

Consistently, placing ourselves in an integrated social model is appropriate because it allows us to comprehend which factors are linked with entrepreneurial success, for the development of an entrepreneurial attitude as well as for initiating it (Alda-Varas et al. 2018; European Union Official Journal, 2018; Osorio, 2014; Pellicer et al., 2013; Rolando, 2010), certain essential aspects in an area support competence in another one.

This way, Rizzato (2012) and Trejo (2016) find higher motivation for achievement in entrepreneurs than in those that do not establish an enterprise. This is a key factor in the intention to engage in enterprise and shows a significant relationship with entrepreneurial success. Furthermore, the relationship between self-efficacy and entrepreneurial success has been demonstrated in different studies (Allison et al., 2000; Bernal & Donoso, 2016; Pandey, 2011; Trejo et al., 2016).

The Catalogue of Transversal Competences of the European Union and the Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development, approved by all the countries in the General Assembly of the United Nations (2015), as endorsed by the CEDEFOP (2019) and the Organization for the Cooperation and Economic Development (OCDE, 2018), highlight the relevance of the acquisition of competences from continued training at the time of establishing an enterprise, paying special attention to vulnerable groups with regard to employment. In particular, within the goals of Objective 4 of Sustainable Development-Ensuring inclusive, equitable and high-quality education and promoting learning opportunities during their entire life for all human beings, increasing substantially the number of young and adult population who has the necessary competences to access employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship (Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, 2015):

Sustainable development draws from the premise that eradication of poverty in all forms and dimensions, the fight against inequality inside countries and between them, the preservation of the planet, the creation of a sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth and the promotion of social inclusion are linked and interdependent (A/RES/70/1 of the United Nations: Transforming our world: the Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development, p. 5).

Once these premises are established, it makes sense to stop to reflect on the factors that interact with the development of the entrepreneurial career and which exert a greater influence from the training-educational system as well as from the work environment. And, in the European Frame for Entrepreneurial Competence (EntreComp, 2018), which identifies the common components of the entrepreneurial competence, and from which 15 entrepreneurial sub competences are established, organized in three areas: “ideas and opportunities”; “resources” and “taking action”.

We place ourselves before the development of competences. This is considered key for the entrepreneurial professional development, in a dialogue with the community; that is to say, in a dialogue with the labour and social context in which the professional career is built; a dialogue with significative agents of socialization as the technical staff with whom we have conducted this investigation. The competence development that makes sense when it contributes to the personal, professional, social, and environmental development.

Finally, we must consider that, among the conditions that contribute to reach an entrepreneurial challenge with success, there are marked, besides the inner factors that are inherent in the entrepreneurs, the inner factors inherent in the enterprise (counting on a team of partners focused on the task, cohesive, cooperative, compromised and satisfied) and the external factors, such as the circumstances of the environment, of the community, which influence to a large extent the development of the project, as the entrepreneurial ecosystem, the role of the administration, the finance, the culture of entrepreneurship, the network of contacts or the big companies (García-Poole et al., 2019; García-Ramírez et al., 2014; Ramos-Vidal & Maya-Jariego, 2014).

Certainly, engaging in enterprise is a complex process, in which many requests and challenges are presented to the entrepreneurial population by society and the environment in general as well as by the labour market in particular. To solve the conflict of how to establish an enterprise we are interested in knowing the context of the problems and challenges that this population plans to face as its purpose and, above all, its competences, potentials, opportunities and supports, to be able to overcome those conflicts and become everything that human, social and labour wise they want to become (Balcazar et al., 2014; Chua & Bedford, 2016; Martín et al., 2015; Sánchez-Vidal, 2017; Shoffner et al., 2015), which requires some interdisciplinary work.

According to these approaches and necessities, in the present study we propose the following objectives:

  1. 1.

    To know the main psychosocial factors that the key informants recognize in the entrepreneurial population, associated with the key competences which facilitate the entrepreneurship.

  2. 2.

    To identify the competences that are in the basis of entrepreneurship, assessing their degree of importance in the design and management of an entrepreneurial project, according to the perspective of this staff involved.

  3. 3.

    To discover areas of necessities that guide proposals of psychosocial intervention which incentivize entrepreneurial pathways with social, economic, and environmental impact.

In summary, to investigate which are the psychosocial referents that entrepreneurs use to build the basis of their entrepreneurial project, competences that are being developed in a transversal way and from learning experiences. This work starts from following hypothesis:

  1. 1.

    There is a modification among modern entrepreneurs, where most of them are more sensitive about sustainable economic development and socio-economic question among community where they operate. Considering a social function in their activities they use a more complex approach, which considers the inter-dependence and the relationship between an Organization and the context where it operates. To realize this objective new entrepreneurs have to consider socio-emotional factors, realizing a more sensitive approach, especially with vulnerable people.

  2. 2.

    Modern entrepreneurs are more oriented to consider socio-emotional values as essential factors to manage properly an enterprise.

Methods

Starting from previous methods about entrepreneurial competences (Buccieri et al., 2022; Oo et al., 2022; Riyanti et al., 2022) we consider the influence of Human Rights Approach.

To elucidate in an exploratory manner which psychosocial variables are shown as linked to the entrepreneurial competence, of consolidated entrepreneurs as well as of those who find themselves in the process of establishing a business project, and given the lack of previous studies in this research line, we consider the adequacy of a qualitative project which allows us to obtain new information in an inductive manner from the same professionals implied directly in this scope of intervention, research that adopted an exploratory character in the frame of the R+D project in which this study falls within (Anonymized).

Thereby we rely on interviews and discussion groups, with a view to obtain systems of categories that allow us to move forward in the production of information, and at the same time in the sense of a classification of psychosocial variables and entrepreneurial competences which allows to promote actions of psychosocial intervention orientated to the entrepreneurial, sustainable development. We highlight the functionality of the qualitative methodology regarding this purpose (Haya et al., 2013).

Participants

Twenty-five open-ended interviews and two discussion groups were administered, with the sample amounting to a total of 42 participants: 25 participants in the administered interviews, 8 in the group of discussion 1 and 9 in the group of discussion 2. The key informants have been experts, managers, and business coordinators, recruited on the Spanish territory. They have been selected incidentally, although guaranteeing their structural representativity on the basis of the profiles that we are interested in having them represented in the investigation.

The key informants in the discussion groups as well as in the interviews were selected in a manner that the presence of population of both genders was ensured, a diversity regarding the sending institutions, and the diversity of geographical areas (Autonomous Communities). In the same manner, the diversity of the participants on the basis of the profiles that they attend in the services considered was guaranteed: unemployed population in general, different groups in risk of exclusion, potential entrepreneurs, business women, emerging entrepreneurs and in transition, consolidated entrepreneurs and university community, every impaired community considering difficulties by the socio-economic point of view in last 20 years (Ackerly, 2011; Caro-Gonzalez et al., 2019; Hossein et al. 2006; Locket, 2008; Zubie et al., 2015). With that we intended to identify a better representation and understanding of the group of psychosocial factors that are shown linked to the entrepreneurial competence from an approach which encourages psychosocial well-being and quality of life and labour, especially in moments of crisis as the present one.

In particular, the sample belongs to different contexts from Aragon, Sevilla, Valencia, Valladolid, Castilla and Leon, Galicia, Granada and Madrid, being characterized by its contextual diversity. Professionals of diverse profiles participated in the research: (1) Advisors from the Projects Area of the Chamber of Commerce (3); (2) Specialists in guidance for entrepreneurship from support centres for entrepreneurs (5); (3) Advisors of Guadalinfo Centres (3); Agents of Local Development focused in entrepreneurship (2); (4) Advisor for enterprise and business training (4); (5) Specialist from Centers for Business Development Support (CADEs) (3); (6) Experts in entrepreneurship with personal experience in the matter (2); (7) Specialist from Non-profit Organizations such as the Red Cross, that we consider as an International Nonprofit Organization oriented to Human Rights, but with a strict organizational setting (Du Mortier & Arpagus, 2005; Mathbor & Jani, 2013) (6); (8) Associations of Young Businessmen (4); (9) Associations of Businesswomen (2); (10) Confederations of businessmen (3); (11) Schools and training centres for entrepreneurs, accelerators and spin-off companies (2); (12) Foundations of Universities which work with entrepreneurs (2); and, (13) Cooperatives (1); of which 23 are women and 19, men, between the ages of 27 and 53 years old.

Ethical considerations

In the process of investigation, a series of ethical considerations were considered, which referred to the criteria and requirements of participation through an informed consent. A rigorous field work and an ethical treatment of the information was also guaranteed, from the return of information and the confirmation of the comprehension in the same context of the importance of the psychosocial factors considered whilst they were perceived as linked with the key entrepreneurial competence.

Measure

In order to respond to the objectives presented and as it has been pointed out before, the research combines the technique of open-ended interview with the discussion group. In both cases we have worked with the reference script as set out in Table 1.

Table 1 Script of test items
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All the discursive material was recorded and transcribed and, afterwards, the analysis of content was performed, from the transfer of the information, which was previously coded and categorized, and analysed primarily on the basis of its meaning and coherently with the objectives of the investigation. The main dimensions result in a coded system, according to the methodological guidance of Montañes (2010), identifying the key categories and subcategories of the system, which have served as a guideline to structure the report of results. In Table 2 we present the dimensions and categories of such system.

Table 2 Extract of the category system
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Procedure

Once the information coming from the interviews and discussion groups is gathered, we proceeded to triangulate the individual perceptions and the discursive group production for the purpose of obtaining more stable answers which would serve us as the baseline for the design of training and guiding proposals for the development of the entrepreneurial career. In the present paper we are not interested in differentiating between the individual input and the group production, but in identifying common grounds about the object of study. In the following chapter the findings obtained are presented.

Results

In this section the most relevant findings discovered are presented, consistently with the objectives stated in the investigation. These findings follow Research procedures used in qualitative analysis (Hidayati & Sulastri, 2019; Wilson, 2016).

Characteristics or qualities present in the entrepreneur

When we inquire entrepreneurs and technicians about the characteristics or qualities that recognize an entrepreneur (objective 1), both agents coincide in qualities that can be grouped in four categories: (1) Regulation or emotional control, referring to the capacity of the person to manage emotions and face challenges, resolving them in a positive and realistic manner, and learning from everyday situations that they encounter; (2) Creative and business thinking, which implies anticipating necessities and assuming changes, acting in an original and creative manner and which allows the visibility of advances in the work environment adapting new strategies and creating others of creative performance. The technical, coordinator and manager staff of entrepreneurial services have specially emphasized these qualities, as they are present requirements in the companies; (3) Proactiveness, outlining qualities that require establishing compromises and being critical persons, who are mobilized by the situations in which they have to take decisions or act in some way. It is also related to knowing how to look for compromises and adapting to changes assuming them as part of their life course; and, (4) Socio-emotional skills, outlining qualities that refer to the development of social skills applied to interpersonal and group interaction. Thus, the importance of leadership, empathy, active listening, and socio-emotional skills of interactive and relational character which are necessary to work in a group and manage teams are emphasized.

These variables are presented organized in Table 3, including the subcategories that form them, as well as some of the evidence obtained in the interviews and discussion groups.

Table 3 Psychosocial characteristics or variables that can be recognized in an entrepreneur
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According to the own speeches of the key informants, some questions that allow to find sense in their narrative are remarkable.

As an example, we outline the following:

An entrepreneur has the ability of being always alert to learn, they never sleep, as they say, and any opportunity they see they harness it or connects it with their business (Entrepreneur 12).

The persons who establish an enterprise are highly active, they do not wait for things to come to them, but they go and look for them. They are persons that are able to put themselves in the skin of others, of understanding groups and facilitating constructive changes that are positive and satisfactory, and they are persons with good qualities to solve conflicts and create good environments, not in any other way the spaces to establish enterprises are generated (Discussion group 2).

An entrepreneur must possess personal and teamwork qualities. At a personal level, empathy is something essential, to put themselves in the place of others, as well as to know how to catch the requests of a sector (Entrepreneur 23).

They must have certain ability to adjust because not everything is going to come out as they thought originally, and they are going to have to adapt (Entrepreneur 10).

Competences that are at the basis of entrepreneurship

We also consulted the participant agents for the competences that are recognized in an entrepreneur, and which are on the base of an entrepreneurial profile (potential entrepreneur). Two essential moments of the entrepreneurial trajectory were considered, as it is the transition to entrepreneurship (at an incipient or emerging stage of the career) and a consolidated entrepreneurial trajectory (Suárez-Ortega et al., 2015). In Table 4 the results are presented according to these types of exploratory profiles, on the basis of the competences that are in the foundation of an entrepreneurial process, from the perspective of the participant agents.

Table 4 Comparative analysis of subcategories provided according to the entrepreneurial profile
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It can be observed that, in general, participants see key competences more clearly in potential entrepreneurs and in a consolidated professional profile, whilst in professional profiles in transition some essential competences are highlighted but they manifest that “according to each person and project the necessities may be very diverse, and therefore the competences that are required to develop” (Discussion group 1).

Nevertheless, an exploratory profile of similar competences based on the key competences identified could be elaborated: (1) regulation/emotional control; (2) creative and business thinking; (3) proactiveness; and, (4) social skills, adding value to the competence of team work.

Elaborating on the examined profiles, it can be appreciated how they would be shaped emphasizing some components of these competences according to each case:

  1. (1)

    Potential entrepreneurs, outlining the management and assumption of risks, the passion for establishing an enterprise, continued learning, clarity about their professional goals, and perseverance and continuous work towards the achievement of goals.

    • They are guided by passion (e.g. entrepreneur 14, groups 1, 2).

    • Risk management (e.g. entrepreneur 17, groups 1, 2).

    • Perseverance (e.g. entrepreneurs 14, 24, 9).

      In order to engage in enterprise there must be something that moves you to it, you must have an engine that powers you, seeing things very clearly but it must be something in which you really believe and that has something to do with you, if not it is going to be difficult to overcome adversities that are many, because it is not easy to establish an enterprise (Entrepreneur 18).

      I always tell them that for engaging in enterprise one must see it in projection, you must have a clear goal that is your passion, and then from there you can start a project out and if you believe in it, the person will do all that is possible to make it work and it will bring out the best of them and the rest (Cooperative technician).

  2. (2)

    Entrepreneurs in transition, valuing specially self-confidence, positive and realistic self-knowledge, ability of learning and emotional control, and management of failure above all.

    When I first thought about starting this project, to be honest the most difficult thing was to organize everything, all my life, because at the beginning you don’t know where you are and where the project is, you don’t know how to set boundaries, for this reason it is so important to value things well, as you have to have your possibilities clear (Entrepreneur 16).

  3. (3)

    Consolidated entrepreneurs, on whom the participant agents highlight a better information, that could be explained since they have gone through experiences that can be valued and analysed. Thus, they refer the necessity to have a positive and realistic view of the entrepreneurial project and of the situations to overcome, maintaining their own values and professional ethic. They emphasize the responsibility on the processes, the ability to take risks, the necessary self-confidence and being able to overcome processes of crisis from which they will come out stronger, if not in a short term, in a medium term, having clarity of ideas, eagerness to progress always, knowing how to manage teams and be a leader, surrounding themselves with the best and most diverse professionals in the area, and having foresight, in addition to passion for what they do.

    • Eagerness to work, eagerness to progress (e.g. entrepreneurs 5, 13, group 1).

    • Focused on achievement (e.g. entrepreneurs 13, 18).

    • Perseverance (e.g. entrepreneurs 13, 21).

    • Innovating (e.g. entrepreneurs 12, 17, groups 1, 2).

    • Harnessing opportunities (e.g. entrepreneurs 15, 21).

    • Initiative (e.g. entrepreneurs 12, 19).

    • Being able to recognize mistakes and do whatever they can to sort them out learning from them, looking for solutions (e.g. entrepreneurs 3, 17, groups 1, 2).

    • Ability to preserve balance (e.g. entrepreneurs 14, 23, group 2.

    • Knowing how to choose their team (e.g. entrepreneurs 12, 13, 14, 25, group 1).

    • Social skills (e.g. entrepreneurs 7, 19, group 2).

    • Knowing how to communicate (e.g. entrepreneurs 12, 20, group 1).

Areas of necessities which guide the training interventions for entrepreneurship

Third, and based on the previous premises, we considered identifying areas of necessities that entrepreneurs have, from the perspective of the key informants that could guide proposals of intervention. Bearing in mind the qualities and competences presented (Tables 3, 4), in Table 5 we identify those in which the participant agents have shown they have core needs to design and manage an entrepreneurial project.

Table 5 Psychosocial categories to be promoted in training actions
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Taking stock of the information gathered in the interviews and discussion groups regarding the purpose of this study, we identify, in an exploratory manner, some of the areas of necessities shown by these participant agents regarding key competences. Thus, we emphasize the need to train entrepreneurs towards:

  1. (1)

    The development of creative and business thinking, very current demands in companies, being able to generate new ideas in order to solve conflicts and taking them into action in a decisive, autonomous, creative and innovative way, and being able to take the risks that may be involved, managing frustration properly.

  2. (2)

    Developing a proactive attitude based on the personal and cooperative compromises that are necessary for the managing of the entrepreneurial project. That requires that the person knows in depth the area in which they are going to establish their enterprise, and also for them to develop an adequate knowledge of themselves and their potential and limitations -realistic and positive self-knowledge (self-concept–self-efficacy). All of these will be their baggage to face new challenges in a more prepared manner; and,

  3. (3)

    A relevant area of need is presented around the development of socio-emotional competences, emphasizing personal and intergroup emotional management, teamwork, verbal and non-verbal communication and leadership competences.

Ultimately, areas of needs around the entrepreneurial key competence that serve as a reference axis in training actions and those of psychosocial intervention.

Discussion

The current research has allowed us, from a holistic and integrative perspective, to explore and identify the existence of psychosocial variables that are perceived on the basis of the design and management of the entrepreneurial trajectory, reference axis that are needed in the continuous education and training, according to the approach based on human rights (Asamblea General de las Naciones Unidas, 2015; CEDEFOP, 2019; Comisión Europea, 2020; Diario Oficial de la Unión Europea, 2018; OCDE, 2018; PNUD, 2016, 2019).

Thus, the importance of leadership, empathy, active listening, and socio-emotional skills of interactive and relational character which are necessary to work in a group and manage teams are emphasized. we emphasize the need to train entrepreneurs towards: (1) The development of creative and business thinking, very current demands in companies, being able to generate new ideas in order to solve conflicts and taking them into action in a decisive, autonomous, creative and innovative way, and being able to take the risks that may be involved, managing frustration properly. (2) Developing a proactive attitude based on the personal and cooperative compromises that are necessary for the managing of the entrepreneurial project. That requires that the person knows in depth the area in which they are going to establish their enterprise, and also for them to develop an adequate knowledge of themselves and their potential and limitations-realistic and positive self-knowledge (self-concept–self-efficacy). All of these will be their baggage to face new challenges in a more prepared manner; and, (3) A relevant area of need is presented around the development of socio-emotional competences, emphasizing personal and intergroup emotional management, teamwork, verbal and non-verbal communication and leadership competences. Ultimately, areas of needs around the entrepreneurial key competence that serve as a reference axis in training actions and those of psychosocial intervention.

These group of identified categories of competence factors proves coherent with the construct that Di Fabio (2014) designates as “intraentrepreneurial self-capital”, understood as the core of individual resources that entrepreneurs use to face their challenges (dimensions of central self-evaluation, resistance, creative self-efficacy, ability for recovery, mastery of objectives, decision and surveillance).

Socio-emotional competences are identified in the core of values, attitudes and skills that permeate entrepreneurial behaviour. Emotional control and the group of socio-emotional competences required in entrepreneurs are defined, in the case of consolidated entrepreneurs, with a greater richness of nuances or of subcategories than in the case of entrepreneurs in transition or potential entrepreneurs.

In the obtained model of categories, emotional control occupies a prominent place and it is configured as a complex competence group, associated to categories such as emotional control/self-control, autonomy, self-efficacy, and willingness to accomplish new learnings. Different studies place the locus of control as a determining factor in the entrepreneurial behaviour (García-Cabrera et al., 2015; Karimi et al., 2017). Linked to the competences of emotional control, social competences also occupy a relevant place as a key element of entrepreneurial success. This social competence means the activation of assertive emotional behaviours towards others and themselves, together with a comprehension of the cultural environment, and an adaptative behaviour adjusted to the needs of each situation in relation with other human beings and common good. The presence of assertive emotional behaviours and the ability to have an impact in persons in the work environment created by entrepreneurs is endorsed by other studies (Di Fabio, 2014; Sánchez-Teruel & Robles-Bello, 2015). Regarding particularly to the ability to work as a team and leadership, the results contrast with those from other studies as the one by González and Parra (2008), which found low competence levels at this respect. In this regard, it can be considered that a possible difficulty lies in finding balance between the competence of teamwork and the competence of autonomy and sense of direction that is present in the entrepreneurs (Lussier & Achua, 2008).

Creative thinking, other of the categories identified in the speeches of key informants, it is confirmed in the comparison of perceptions from the different profiles of entrepreneurship: creative thinking is not exclusive of the moment of inception of the entrepreneurial project, but it maintains its importance in the case of consolidated entrepreneurs. Creativity in the activity that is carried out must be combined with a realistic and positive view, pointing out its importance in connection with their own values-objectives and goals, interests and skills, search for opportunities and planning of an autonomous decision making (Bernal & Donoso, 2016; Lucas & Carbonero, 2002; MIT Technology Review, 2016; Sánchez-García, 2017). This creativity and innovation ability, interacting with other entrepreneurial characteristics and with the opportunities/challenges provided by the context, has been identified as a factor associated with the intent to engage in enterprise and entrepreneurial success (Başar, 2018; Miller & Le Breton-Miller, 2017; Zampetakis et al., 2011).

The dimensions of proactivity and resilience appear as two attitudinal and behavioural elements that complement each other and that are provided with feedback from the creative ability. Hombrados (2013) already links them when defining resilience as a process by which human beings develop the ability to face the adversities in all orders of life and overcome the forementioned, adversities learning from them and becoming stronger with the experience. On the basis of the comparative analysis carried out from the entrepreneurial profiles, it is equally clear that consolidated entrepreneurs with more experience show more consciousness and richness of nuances about the numerous attitudes and sub competences that can be associated to these subcategories.

All these contribution are really important to develop a conscious and responsible approach among managers, who are in this case properly formed and motivated to consider the inter-dependence of markets, communities and citizens around the World, creating solid basis for future entrepreneurs (Amberg & Mcgaughey, 2019; Ashta, 2016; Gans & Rutkowski, 2015; Penna & Campelo, 2021; Retraction, 2021).

The practical and proactive sense in the entrepreneurial exercise is associated with a locus of internal control and attributional mechanisms that are critical with their own performance, increasing confidence in their own resources and abilities to face the challenges that are involved in the entrepreneurial activity and the barriers perceived in the environment (Miller & Le Breton-Miller, 2017; Trejo, 2016).

In this regard, different authors point out a development of these abilities by influence of the context, because the negative circumstances of the environment (economic, sociocultural, exclusion, etc.) generate conditions and experiences that promote adaptation, risk tolerance, social skills and creativity (Block & Wagner, 2010). The ability to face adverse situations has also been linked to proactivity, self-efficacy, and emotional control. In this regard, Sánchez-Teruel and Robles-Bello (2015) support the idea that resilience is developed in an evolutive and dynamic way.

At this moment it seems to be beyond doubt that training and orientating action is determining not only in the decision to engage in enterprise (Liñán et al., 2011), but also in the construction and the development of entrepreneurial projects through a training that contributes to the development of competences and of certain personal characteristics (Packham et al., 2010; Peterman & Kennedy, 2003).

Regarding the good practices in training and guidance of the entrepreneurs (objective 3), the conclusions and proposals derived from the speeches emphasize the need for actions that promote the development of creative thinking and the management of challenges from a proactive and resilient attitude. Likewise, it suggests the adequacy of a specific training in social skills, in particular in verbal and non-verbal communication techniques.

The array of results obtained in respect to objective 2 also offers us a reference frame and some cores of competence needs to rethink or reconsider the contents of the training of entrepreneurs, beyond the specific and technical aspects of the design and the management of a business project in economic terms. In this regard they also allow us to consider, on the one hand, that the practices to guide and support the human beings who initiate an entrepreneurial career must pay attention to the balance between emotional self-regulation and social competence. And, on the other hand, it is equally necessary to attend to the complementarity in the development of proactiveness, resilience and creativity.

As Karimi et al. (2017) point out, insofar as the psychosocial characteristics are built and provide feedback in interaction with contextual aspects, the programs of intervention require to be built in relation with the contextual frames, which can be complex, and according to diverse sociodemographic conditions. As a fact, bearing in mind the classical theory of planned behaviour by Ajzen (1991), different studies explain, in addition to the influence of the context, the relevance of personal attitude for the event of establishing an enterprise and the control and the degree of facility perceived towards entrepreneurial action (Fernández de Caleya et al., 2019; Sánchez-Tomé et al., 2019). Relevant criteria in the design and adaptation of proposals of training and entrepreneurial psychosocial intervention. According to Chavarro et al. (2015), availability of the methods adapted to the characteristics and particular needs of each potential entrepreneur in their context is essential. At the same time, CEDEFOP (2019) points out the following aspects to be considered as relevant and which we have followed in this study: that it is located within the community and envisages accessible and flexible times and spaces; that it considers to gather and analyse the services that the community is looking for and needs; that it integrates multidisciplinary teams and services at a local level; that it participates with agents of the society and receives access to other specialized services and support; that studies are designed considering cross-sectoral cooperation (for example, between ministries, institutions, agencies, non-profit organizations, businesses…). Although this study represents a contribution for the analysis of competences that are considered relevant for the entrepreneurial success and development, it is convenient to consider some limitations of methodological order, mainly related to the fact that it is based on self-reports, with the limited extent of samples from informants and with the inherent limitations due to the interpretative character of the study. While it provides us with keys and adds nuances to the existing knowledge regarding entrepreneurial competences, it also suggests the need of its approach and elaborating through more comprehensive strategies such as life stories, in order to identify links between the dimensions found, or longitudinal follow-ups to appreciate the impact of psychosocial intervention. In addition, it suggests a deeper study of certain variables, for example, age or training, and their role in the competence evolution of the entrepreneurs. We find matching results with the different entrepreneurial and civic competences that can be developed through strategies of social innovation as the learning-service (Martínez-Usarralde et al., 2018), and they are equally linked to the competences that are required by human development and the empowerment of the community (EntreComp, 2018; Sánchez-Vidal, 2017).

Conclusion

This study suggests, moreover, the need to evaluate the good practices that are being developed in this field and to design training proposals focused on empowering human beings and the community for entrepreneurship. Its conclusions allow us to note some implications for the psychosocial intervention with the entrepreneurial development.

This contribution is important to add another intervention about the discussion about the Separation Theory, which doesn’t consider the existence of both a social and entrepreneurial function (Boatright, 2000; Wempe, 2008).

First of all, this research provides an approach of the entrepreneurial development that contributes at the same time to human and community-based development and social compromise, from the approach based on human rights, conceptual frame shared by international organizations. Based on our exercise of social responsibility through this research we intend to synchronize with the guidelines established in the Objectives of Sustainable Development and the good practices elements that are characteristic of this approach, of direct application in every process of entrepreneurial development: (1) persons are considered the main agents of their own development, instead of passive receivers of products and services; (2) participation is at the same time means and objective; (3) strategies provide empowerment, instead of rejecting it; (4) Both the results and the processes are supervised and evaluated; (5) programs are focused specially in marginalized and excluded population groups; (6) the development process is of local ownership; (7) programs have as their objective to reduce inequalities and to empower those who have been left behind; (8) the analysis of the situation is used for identifying the immediate, subjacent and fundamental causes of the development problems. And, at the same time, contributing to entrepreneurial development, cooperating with the requirement of the World Program of Education in Human Rights for the period 2020–2024, with what has been recently published, in 2017, by the Renovated Agenda of the European Union for High Education, from which universities are appealed to actively compromise with the communities around them, promoting social inclusion (European Commission, 2017) and, in the university educational context of our country, to compromise to collaborate with the Agenda 2030 (Conference of Rectors of the Spanish Universities, 2018).

And, from this approach, and according to these referents and results obtained, the need to incorporate new areas of content aimed at the planning and management of the entrepreneurial career is suggested. The introduction of these elements poses new challenges regarding the education of the professionals who intervene in the design and application of the programs of support to entrepreneurship. And, at last, the knowledge of these factors provides with criteria for the design of psychosocial intervention beyond the technical aspects regarding the planning of the project of the future entrepreneurs, at the same time that encourages the interdisciplinary work of the different professionals and communitarian and social environments, in line with the employment and life-long learning policies.