Introduction

In recent years, a range of art projects have tackled the topic of migration with the intent to challenge mainstream representations. Ai Weiwei, the world-famous Chinese artist, created works like Law of the Journey, a 70-foot-long inflatable boat installation to highlight refugees’ struggles in the context of European migration policies (National Gallery Prague, 2018). The artwork aimed to disrupt the media narratives often depicting migrants as threats or burdens: “There’s no refugee crisis, but only human crisis,” he asserted, advancing the use of art “as a means to understand our complex reality.” The Undocumented Migration Project launched by UCLA Anthropology Professor Jason De León combines photography, installations, and ethnographic findings and aims to challenge dominant narratives on migration across the US-Mexico border (Undocumented Migration Project, 2017). It offers a humanizing portrayal of migrants and exposes the dangers and complexities they face on their journey while shifting the frame away from border security and criminalization. These examples reflect how art can be mobilized to challenge dominant media narratives on migration. Not only do they bring attention to the complex realities that migrants face, but they also explicitly address dominant narratives such as the recurrent idea of a migration crisis in Europe or the criminalization of migration at the Southern US border.

Such art projects have generated growing interest in the context of a global rise in anti-migrant sentiment and extreme right movements, fed by the diffusion of dehumanizing narratives of migrants (Petersen, 2017; Mekdjian, 2018; Barry, 2019). However, enthusiasm over the potential of the arts in promoting alternative narratives can lead to taking for granted the power of the arts in promoting values of hospitality and solidarity. We argue that the conditions under which the arts indeed engage with migration narratives and may or may not challenge existing frames require critical examination. This article emphasizes the embeddedness of the arts in a complex network of production and diffusion, which can affect the nature of the work and its reception, and aims to sketch a framework to highlight the tensions and dilemmas that the various producers involved in such socially engaged art projects are facing.

This article analyzes the “Afghanistan My Love” exhibition held at the Aga Khan Museum (AKM) in Toronto, Canada, between October 2022 and April 2023, and how it engaged with discourses and representations of migration. The exhibition constitutes an ideal case study for examining the conditions under which the arts can respond to mainstream narratives of migration, as it combines three essential components: timing that puts migration in the spotlight, an institution committed to challenging the dominant migration narrative, and diaspora artists who take center stage to voice their perspectives. First, the exhibition was organized in the aftermath of the Taliban’s takeover of Afghanistan in the summer of 2021, which led to a significant surge in media coverage focusing on the country’s political turmoil and human rights concerns, accompanied by a resettlement program for Afghan refugees in Canada. Second, this exhibition has been put forward by the Aga Khan Museum (AKM), which since its establishment in Toronto in 2014 has led several exhibition projects aiming to engage with the dominant portrayal of migrants in Canada and the West in general. For instance, the exhibition “Don’t Ask Me Where I’m From” showcased work from descendants of immigrants in various parts of the world. While the Afghanistan My Love exhibition is not framed explicitly as an exhibition about migration, it is driven by an explicit attempt to challenge dominant narratives of Afghanistan and Afghans in Canada and to show “how art can be used as a powerful medium for connection during times of adversity” (Aga Khan Museum, 2022). Third, the exhibition displays the work of transnational Afghan artists with distinct trajectories: Shaheer Zazai, who fled Afghanistan as a child and grew up in Pakistan and Canada and is now a Canadian citizen, and the Kabul-founded artists collective Artlords, largely dispersed globally in the aftermath of the Taliban takeover. By showcasing these artists, the exhibition indeed offers a platform to different transnational Afghan artists with varied migration experiences.

Our methodology combines textual analysis, visual social semiotic analysis of the artworks displayed, and interviews. Textual analysis involved closely examining exhibition texts, including wall labels, artist statements, and media coverage, to uncover the underlying discourses and narratives that shape the exhibition’s framing of migration. To grasp the polysemic meanings of the artworks displayed at the exhibition, visual social semiotic analysis focused on their visual elements, composition, and symbolism. Drawing from the work of Barthes (1972) and Kress and Van Leeuwen (2020), this method involves scrutinizing the images’ denotation (literal messages) and connotation (cultural interpretations and ideological meanings), as well as the context or visual syntax. We analyzed how images represent reality, the relationship between the image producer and viewer, and how these functions operate within specific communication genres. Finally, interviews with key stakeholders involved in the exhibition are also integral to our methodology. This includes in-depth, semi-structured interviews with the artists participating in the exhibition, the curator, the director of collections, and the CEO of the AKM to discuss the creative processes, intentions, and conceptual underpinnings of the exhibition.

As our study primarily focuses on the production of the exhibition, a detailed analysis of audience demographics and their perceptions was beyond the scope of our current research. Nevertheless, it is worth noting the broader public reception of the exhibition. Reviews in online culture magazines (e.g., Nanji, 2022; Berge, 2022) and comments on social media platforms (Aga Khan Museum Facebook page, 2022; Aga Khan Museum Instagram, 2022) highlighted the exhibition’s attempt to engage with mainstream narratives about Afghanistan, moving away from an association with war and emphasizing cultural richness and resilience. The exhibition encouraged active audience engagement, for instance, by distributing postcards for visitors to share their messages within the museum space. We observed that a diverse audience engaged with the exhibit, including members of the Afghan diaspora and many other communities in Toronto.

This paper is structured as follows: it starts with a section providing an outline of the state of the art of studies on the power of the arts in shaping representations of migrants. The following part presents the conceptual framework that underpins the paper’s analysis. It sets the stage for the subsequent section, “Afghanistan in mainstream representations,” which critically examines how Afghanistan has been portrayed in Western mainstream accounts. The subsequent section introduces the “Afghanistan My Love” exhibition. The paper proceeds by analyzing the two key modalities through which the exhibition seeks to challenge mainstream narratives of migration. First, it analyzes reframing tactics, which implicitly revisit dominant representations of Afghans in various aspects of the curatorial choices made and the artwork displayed. Then, it analyzes how the exhibition sought to create an explicit counter-narrative which, although it does not seek to fundamentally shift the key underlying frames that structure the perception of Afghans and Afghanistan, tries to initiate a collective movement to propose a narrative of hope that counters the narrative of war and despair.

Artistic Production and the Representation of Migration

Over the last few years, an increasing number of scholars have become interested in the relationship between arts and migration representations (Dogramaci & Mersmann, 2019; Martiniello, 2022). Particularly, there has been increasing interest over the potential power of arts as a tool to reframe representations of migrants (Schramm et al., 2019; Leurs et al., 2020; Marchevska & Defrin, 2023). Artistic expression has long been put forward as a powerful medium for challenging and offering alternatives to mainstream media representation (Holle et al., 2021; Makhumula, 2019). Artists often employ symbolism, metaphor, and visual rhetoric to convey their messages, prompting viewers to question and interrogate dominant ideologies (Abderrezak, 2016; Molho, 2019). Artistic interventions have the potential to incite dialogue, inspire social change, and shape public opinion by presenting alternative narratives that challenge conventional wisdom (McKay & Bradley, 2016; Ong & Rovisco, 2019; Sievers, 2021).

While the art world has long perpetuated a very limited, biased, Western-centric vision and a point of view determined by dominant identities, art world actors have been increasingly pushing to give visibility and agency to those who have been historically silenced or underrepresented, offering more diverse perspectives (Martiniello, 2019; Molho, 2023). In this context, the perspective brought by artists with migrant background has garnered increasing attention (Brownlie, 2021; Golemo, 2020). By sharing personal stories, exploring cultural traditions, and addressing the nuances of their lived experiences, migrant artists present a more authentic portrayal of their communities (Horsti, 2019). Diaspora artists can convey in their work how they navigate the complexities of cultural identity, displacement, and the interplay between their adopted home and their motherland (Mathur, 2011). Their work can bring up complex cross-boundary social and political issues across and highlight the diversity and cultural richness of their home countries.

However, assigning such a political function to the work of diaspora artists has also been argued to be to the detriment to the full acknowledgement of their aesthetic value (Parzer, 2021; Rodgers, 2021). Diaspora artists are often constrained to perform their identity to position themselves within the art scene. To gain recognition and navigate the art world, artists may find themselves compelled to produce work that aligns with dominant notions of their country’s culture or artistic traditions (Çağlar, 2016). This can result in the perpetuation of clichéd narratives or exoticization, which in turn reinforces the limited understanding and representation of their motherland. By being confined to dual identities (same and other, here and there), artists may feel compelled to repeatedly create works that conform to these expectations, limiting their ability to explore diverse themes, experiment with different artistic styles, or address contemporary social and political issues.

To critically assess the transformative potential of art in shaping representations of migrants, one must examine the networks of art production and distribution within which artists and artworks operate. Art is a collaborative social activity involving various actors, including artists, audiences, curators, critics, and institutions (Becker, 1982; Moulin, 1994). Museums occupy a central position in the art world, shaping artistic and aesthetic values (Bevelander & Johansson, 2018). In the latter half of the twentieth century, museums have faced the challenge of addressing historical exclusions and giving visibility to marginalized communities often overlooked or misrepresented in mainstream narratives.

Museums have become platforms for representing the diverse histories and identities of migrant communities. By addressing historical exclusions and making visible the experiences of migrants, museums attempt to promote a more inclusive understanding of cultural heritage (Whitehead et al., 2016). Dedicated migration museums and exhibitions have emerged with the ambition to educate the public, foster empathy, and serve as cultural mediators, connecting migrant histories with broader audiences and challenging exclusionary discourses to promote a more nuanced understanding of migration (Kubica, 2024; Gouriévidis, 2014).

To achieve the ambition of challenging mainstream discourses on migration, museums can adopt various approaches. One approach views the museum as a ritual space, where museum professionals aim to enact an alternative vision and transform viewers’ perceptions. Duncan (2004) posits that museums function similarly to religious and ceremonial places, guiding visitors through a transformative journey designed to elevate their understanding. In the context of migration, this ritualistic function is intended to foster empathy among visitors and challenge stereotypes. By displaying migrants’ narratives and featuring artists from these communities, museums seek to create opportunities for visibility, recognition, and empowerment (Erdogan-O’Connor et al., 2023).

Alternatively, the concept of the participatory museum emphasizes museums as cultural mediators, aiming to facilitate connections between artworks, diverse audiences, and among the audiences themselves. Simon and Grabow (2010) advocates for a participatory culture in museums, where visitors are encouraged to actively engage with exhibits and contribute to shaping their experiences. This approach aims to transform museums into interactive spaces where knowledge is shared and produced collaboratively. Participatory exhibitions have been argued to facilitate direct engagement between visitors and migrant narratives, fostering a sense of solidarity and understanding (Nieroba, 2018).

Reframing vs Counter-Narrating: An Analytical Framework

We propose to distinguish the notions of “reframing” and “counter-narrating” and conceptualize them as two distinct modalities of challenging narratives of migration. Reframing involves altering the underlying structure that governs the understanding of reality. Counter-narrating, on the other hand, explicitly confronts the dominant narrative, providing an explicit alternative view.

Erving Goffman (1974) work introduced the concept of “frames” understood as interpretative schemata that enable individuals to identify and categorize occurrences within the world (Goffman, 1974: 21). Building on Goffman’s ideas, Entman (1993: 52) further developed this idea, explaining framing as the selective emphasis of certain aspects of reality in public discourse, while diminishing others. The media plays a crucial role in this process. They are not passive conduits of information but active participants in the creation and shaping of frames (Matthes & Kohring, 2008; Steidley & Colen, 2017). The application of framing in migration studies is illustrated through a diverse array of research that examines how the issue of migration is presented and interpreted across different contexts and actors (Helbling, 2014; Ransan-Cooper et al., 2015; Roggeband & Vliegenthart, 2007; Wallace, 2018). Klein and Amis (2021) explored the interplay between visual representations and emotional responses, shedding light on how these elements shape public discourse. Brouwer et al. (2017) highlighted how specific frames can criminalize this population, impacting public opinion and policy. Merolla et al. (2013) discussed how language choices, like the terms “illegal,” “undocumented,” or “unauthorized,” serve as framing devices that influence public sentiment on immigration.

The notion of narrative has a long history in the social sciences (Jones & McBeth, 2010). Somers and Gibson (1994) highlighted the pivotal role of narratives in crafting individual identities and behaviors, arguing that the very fabric of social life is interwoven with storied elements, rendering narrative an essential component of social existence. In the realms of political sociology and political science, the narrative approach became instrumental in understanding how policy issues are socially constructed, diverging from the idea of policy problems as objective realities (Kaplan, 1986; Roe, 1994). Scholars have long examined how migration stories are constructed and disseminated and the effects they have on policy and public opinion (Boswell et al., 2021; Dennison, 2021; Sahin-Mencutek, 2020; Sommer, 2023). This includes important work on the impact of “narratives of ‘Crisis’” Squire (2020), the role of narratives in the global governance of migration (Pécoud, 2015), and their significance in the policy-making process (Boswell et al., 2021).

The concept of narrative is distinct from the notion of frame. While framing involves accentuating specific dimensions of an issue to shape its interpretation and policy implications, as outlined by Entman (1993), it does not necessarily incorporate the sequential, character-driven, and plot-based structure of narratives. Frames can make certain aspects of an issue more prominent, which can influence problem definition and moral evaluations (Fishman, 1978; Gamson & Modigliani, 1989). But unlike narratives, frames do not require the sequential progression and character development that characterize a traditional story architecture.

By extension, we propose to distinguish between reframing and counter-narrating. Reframing involves an implicit deconstruction and reconstruction of how a particular reality is represented. For instance, methodological nationalism is a frame that implies people are generally static and national cultures are homogenous (Wimmer & Glick Schiller, 2002). To reframe this, one might portray individuals as inherently mobile and cultures as dynamic and fluid. Conversely, a counter-narrative explicitly confronts an established discourse without stepping outside its parameters, which may inadvertently reinforce the underlying frame. For instance, humanitarian Non-Governmental Organizations seeking to challenge the mainstream media’s securitization framing of migration, while introducing new and alternative elements into the narrative, often fall short of reframing the issue. Instead, inadvertently, they contribute to its reproduction (Massari, 2021).

Mainstream Representations of Afghanistan in Canada

Canada’s military involvement in Afghanistan from 2001 to 2014 and the subsequent arrival of Afghan refugees has influenced public discourse and media narratives surrounding Afghanistan in the Canadian context (Reese & Lewis, 2009; DeCillia, 2018; Sohail, 2023). Since the 1980s, Afghans have migrated to Canada to escape conflict and insecurity in their homeland, particularly during periods such as the Soviet-Afghan War (1979–1989), the civil war (1989–1996), the Taliban regime (1996–2001), and the subsequent war (2001–2021). Records indicate that approximately 63,000 Afghan citizens migrated to Canada between 1980 and 2015, with immigration numbers peaking at 4067 in 2001 (Pendakur, 2021).

Following the Taliban takeover in 2021, there has been a heightened urgency in resettling Afghan nationals. On 13 August 2021, the Canadian Government announced its plan to resettle 20,000 vulnerable Afghans who were forced to flee Afghanistan due to their previous collaboration with the Canadian Government (IRCC, 2021). By February 2022, the government had raised its commitment to accommodate at least 40,000 Afghan refugees (IRCC, 2022). The Afghan refugees resettled in Canada under these programs were granted permanent residency status, which entitled them to receive integration services such as temporary housing, assistance in finding permanent housing, orientation to integrate into the community, and temporary income support. As of March 2024, 49,070 Afghan refugees had arrived in Canada. Private sponsorship for the resettlement of Afghan refugees has also been established, similar to the case of Syrians. A Lifeline Afghanistan program has been set up to support this private sponsorship (IRCC, 2024).

Over the years, Western mainstream media portrayal of Afghanistan has been primarily focused on conflict, political instability, and military interventions, influenced by historical, political, and cultural contexts. Following the September 11, 2001, attacks in the USA, media coverage extensively highlighted the USA and allied military intervention in Afghanistan as part of the “War on Terror.” This coverage contributed to the global perception of Afghanistan primarily as a battleground (Hammond, 2007; Reese & Lewis, 2009).

Another significant aspect of Afghanistan’s portrayal involves human rights, particularly concerning women and children (Klaus & Kassel, 2005). Western media frequently report on restrictions imposed on women. These reports often feature personal stories of Afghan women, emphasizing their struggles and resilience to evoke sympathy and concern from Western audiences. Studies have highlighted how such representation of Muslim women, as uniformly oppressed and in need of “rescue” by the West (Abu-Lughod, 2015), during the US invasion of Afghanistan was used to justify military intervention (Hatef & Luqiu, 2021; Heck & Schlag, 2013; Mackie, 2012).

Western media coverage has also faced criticism for perpetuating stereotypes about Islamic societies (Hanifi, 2018; Said, 1977). A common example of such stereotyping can be found in the depiction of Afghan society monolithically, as “failed” and “traditional” (Ahmadi, 2016). This type of coverage tends to ignore the country’s rich cultural diversity, which includes a variety of ethnic groups (Marsden, 2005).

Another common representation of Afghanistan in Western media is associated with the coverage of the humanitarian crisis following natural disasters or during periods of intensified conflict, depicting struggles for basic necessities such as food, shelter, and medical care (de Lauri & Billaud, 2016; Friis, 2012; OCHA, 2023). While reporting on these crises is key to garnering international support and aid, they carry the limit of often portraying Afghans solely as victims and not as active agents in their struggle for survival and improvement (Massari, 2021).

The “Afghanistan My Love” Exhibition at the Aga Khan Museum

The Aga Khan Museum, located in Toronto, Canada, is an institution dedicated to the collection, preservation, and display of artifacts from Islamic civilizations. Opened in September 2014, the museum was established by the spiritual leader of the Ismaili Muslims, the Aga Khan, to foster a better understanding of Islamic art, culture, and history as well as their interrelation with other cultures. The museum’s collection spans over a thousand years of history, showcasing a variety of works of art, including manuscripts, ceramics, metalwork, and textiles. The Aga Khan Museum also offers an educational program (including online courses, guided tours, and podcasts) aimed at the promotion of pluralism, highlighting the history and diversity of Muslim civilizations and showcasing their contributions to the artistic, scientific, and intellectual development of the global heritage.

The “Afghanistan My Love” exhibition is part of a continuum in the museum’s sustained efforts to engage with the topic of migration and to confront prevailing narratives surrounding it. AKM opened an exhibition on Syria in 2016, during a period of intense global focus on the nation due to the conflict and the resulting mass displacement of its people. “Syria: A Living History” sought not just to inform but to recast perceptions, showcasing the country’s deep-rooted and diverse cultural heritage in the face of its reductionist portrayal in the media. Continuing this thread, in 2019, the “Don’t ask me where I’m from” exhibition addressed migration by giving a platform to artists who navigate multiple cultural identities. It emphasized the varied experiences of immigrants and their descendants, illustrating the complexities and the creative potential arising from living in cultural interstices.

The Afghanistan My Love exhibition, which ran from the 8th of October 2022 to the 10th of April 2023 centered on the work of art collective ArtLords and artist Shaheer Zazai. Artlords is an artist collective established in 2014, which began painting Kabul’s blast walls before expanding into performative art, offering public painting opportunities to address the psychological toll of war. Shaheer Zazai is a Toronto-based Afghan Canadian multidisciplinary artist who employs Microsoft Word to produce digital works reminiscent of Afghan carpets, reflecting on his heritage and the adaptability of human creativity.

The exhibition commences with a didactic introduction on Afghanistan, showcasing a topographical map that delineates its rugged terrain and highlights its principal cities and posing thought-provoking questions about the nation’s identity. “What constitutes a nation? Its land, people, culture, or history?” Accompanying these inquiries, a passage elucidates: “Afghanistan’s rich tapestry has been woven over millennia, at the confluence of diverse ethnicities, beliefs, languages, and innovations.” More questions of varying colors adorn the following walls, prompting explorations into Afghanistan’s history and culture: Is Islam the oldest religion in Afghanistan? Where did women get the Right to vote first, Afghanistan or the USA? Where in the world is the Afghan diaspora? These questions connect via painted lines to illustrated panels that unveil succinct answers. One panel depicts an Afghan mother tenderly kissing the forehead of her daughter. On the panel, visitors can learn that “since August 2021, following the return of the Taliban regime, more than 17,000 Afghans have settled in Canada – growing the local Afghan diaspora and adding to the tapestry of Canadian culture.”

Upon turning to the right-hand wall, visitors are faced with a vast mural co-created by previous visitors under the guidance of Artlords’ artists. This piece intertwines symbols from Afghanistan and Canada: the Canadian Rockies, the historic Afghan Bamiyan Buddhas, a prominent maple leaf, and a young girl clutching the map of Afghanistan.

Then, visitors initiate their journeys into the works of Artlords. This collection includes life-size photographs of murals, paintings, and carpets designed by the artists, as well as videos that documented the collective in action during various painting sessions. It starts with a series of expansive photographs of murals painted on Kabul’s security blast walls, including a mural on the National Directorate of Intelligence wall confronting corruption through the eyes of a young Afghan-Sikh girl, titled I See You from July 2015, and the Solidarity in South Asia mural featuring the calligraphy of a poem by Persian poet Sa’di, evoking collaboration among artists of Indian, Afghan, and Pakistani heritage.

Additionally, the exhibition presents new and rescued paintings from Kabul, reflecting themes of empowerment, healing, and peace. For instance, With Love from Kabul Jan depicts a child’s silhouette with colorful baskets, and another work portrays a boy playing soccer beside the Bamiyan Buddha. One painting captures a girl, seen from behind wearing vibrant colors, reaching toward a flight of white doves emerging from a tear in the canvas against a bright blue sky. The “From War to Peace” section features a painting where an armed figure’s weaponry is transformed into upward-pointing pencils, executed in a stencil art style that echoes the language of political street art.

Proceeding with the tour, visitors encounter a world map entitled “Mural Making in a Global Context” that provides a snapshot of the vast network of artists engaged in public murals and graffiti internationally. This map, which underscores the universality of mural art, showcases diverse figures like Philip Cote from Canada, an Anishinaabe-Algonquin artist and historian, Amanda Phingbodhipakkiya, an American artist with immigrant roots, the British street artist Banksy, as well as WiseTwo (Bhupi Jethwa), a Kenyan multidisciplinary artist.

The exhibition continues with an interactive section where visitors are invited to fill in postcards and share their own “hope for the future.” Many of these postcards are displayed on the wall, showcasing past visitors’ messages of hope for Afghanistan.

In the concluding section, the exhibition presents the art of Shaheer Zazai, which encompasses a digital series and rugs crafted by Afghan weavers from his Microsoft Word designs. A Study in Human Error exemplifies the collection, reflecting Zazai’s personal history of displacement from Afghanistan to Pakistan, then Canada, and ultimately Cyprus, underscoring his reflection on his transient life. The artworks display complex patterns that mirror traditional carpets, centralized by symmetrical motifs. A Call Home is another series where Zazai’s digital designs are reinterpreted by weavers living in Afghanistan. These large, geometrically patterned hangings adorn the gallery walls. The Blackout series forms a stark contrast, responding to recent Afghan events with predominately black text-like patterns, symbolizing a period of mourning for the artist’s homeland.

Reframing Afghan Migration: Empowering Transnationally Connected Artists

People don’t have context. Afghanistan is something that you see in the news. You may build your perception based on what you see in the news, but you actually know nothing about the place. I felt it was important that there is an acknowledgment of the complexity of the place and to undermine, provide a sort of imbalance to what people think they know.Footnote 1

As this statement reflects, challenging the dominant frames on Afghanistan was an explicit goal sought by the museum director and the exhibition curator. The exhibition’s title, Afghanistan My Love, is a statement that focuses on the subjective and emotional perspectives of those connected to this land, contrasting with the prevailing narratives of conflict. This first-person title brings intimate, personal views of migrants about their homeland to the forefront.

The selection of artists, though serendipitous, reflects AKM’s globalist view. Artlords received an award from the Center for Global Pluralism, AKM’s sister organization, while the concurrent local exhibition of Shaheer Zazai’s work in Toronto provided a fortuitous opportunity for the museum’s curators to discover and engage with his art. The juxtaposition of the artists’ perspectives—Shaheer Zazai’s external, diasporic viewpoint and Artlords’ internal, Afghan-based narrative—creates a complementary perspective between inside and outside perceptions of the country. The artists’ Afghan identity is combined with complex trajectories and multiple belongings. Zazai left Afghanistan as a child, lived in Pakistan for 30 years before immigrating to Canada, and later relocated to Cyprus, living a transnational and hypermobile life, reflected in his work. The members of Artlords are spread across the globe, and the co-founder, who left Afghanistan when he was 20 years old, went to Australia. He spent a significant part of his life in Australia before returning to Afghanistan in 2010 to develop his artistic projects, and when the Taliban took over, he relocated to Istanbul, maintaining a low profile to be able to remain active in his homeland. These complex trajectories embody a transnational existence, challenging binary notions of migration and belonging. Hence, showcasing these artists contributes to deconstructing the image of the Afghan refugee as a person going through a linear journey from a place of conflict to a place of freedom.

The exhibition adopted various reframing tactics. One of these tactics is the global map of street art located at the end of the Artlords segment, which proposes a decentered representation of the geography of global art world form: Artlords is not framed as following a tradition set in a Western context but rather as part of a global movement. By showcasing a diverse range of street artists from around the world, the exhibition positioned Artlords’ work within a broader international context, offering a decentered view of this artistic expression. This goes beyond an image of Afghanistan that would be merely ethnographic and would consider it as a space of ancient traditions, and rather situate it in a global landscape of creativity, through this comparative approach, that draws a parallel between political street art in Kenya, Canada, or South Korea as well as Afghanistan. The map’s caption is very explicit:

Whether you are on the streets of Kabul, Toronto, or indeed many other cities around the world, mural ‘artivists’ can be found at work, contributing to a broader global discussion.

Another reframing tactic is reflected in the video installation titled Ordinary Kabul, which captures everyday life in the streets of Kabul, presenting the ordinary and the mundane in stark contrast to the sensationalized images of conflict that dominate media portrayals. Marianne Fenton explains, “I wanted film footage of the place, so people can have a real sense of it. An ArtLords member still living there strapped a camera on his bicycle and cycled through the streets of Kabul.”Footnote 2 This approach offered a simple image of Kabul, without war, explosions, or sensational stories. It reminded audiences that “it’s a city just like any other city. It might look culturally a little different, but for a lot of people that come to the museum, it would remind them of cities that they’re from.” This aspect of the exhibition served to humanize and normalize the Afghan experience, countering the one-dimensional narrative of a country defined by violence. Fenton adds, “People are going about their everyday business, they are shopping. There’s a traffic jam. It’s a familiar scene and it seems so ordinary, so normal. To bring that normalcy back in again. No bombs were going off, nothing tragic was happening. Just an ordinary scene of people stuck in traffic, going to the market, drinking coffee.”

The segment on Zazai was perhaps the most reflective of a tactic aiming to reframe Afghanistan and move beyond an exotic representation. Zazai’s work offers an intimate perspective and introspective reflection. In the Mind the Gap, To Allow for a Question, and A Study in Human Error series, Zazai uses Microsoft Word characters combined with a vibrant color palette as a means of expressing his personal everyday feelings. According to him, the artwork emerged from a simple moment of boredom, which had little to do with Afghanistan:

When I first started working with Microsoft Word in 2013, I didn’t intend to make artwork. It was more about giving myself a task because I was feeling rather listless, often lounging on a couch in front of a laptop. So, I challenged myself to type dots and spaces. Out of this self-imposed task, the piece was born. Initially, I’d just take screenshots and post them on Facebook. But the overwhelming response and engagement from the community piqued my interest. As I generated more pieces and observed the growing response, I realized I wasn't merely performing a task; I was producing art.Footnote 3

After the Taliban takeover in August 2021, however, the artist decided to delve deep into the specific political events and reflect on his inner self through the series Blackout (Fig. 1). In this sequence of artworks, Zazai made a deliberate choice to restrict himself to a stark black-and-white palette, a vivid representation of the dark cloud that loomed over Afghanistan’s cultural and societal fabric. The absence of color in the “Blackout” series symbolizes Zazai’s emotional turmoil and deep-seated anguish regarding the societal regression and cultural stifling that the Taliban’s rise represented to the artist. This self-imposed color restriction served as a visual metaphor for the constraints, both literal and symbolic, that Afghanistan faced during this period.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Source: photograph of the artwork by the author

Blackout/2022 (Shaheer Zazai).

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Shaheer Zazai’s artistic work, while drawing upon his cultural heritage, does not foreground it as the primary subject; rather, it serves as a resource. There is a discernible awareness in Zazai’s work of the need to communicate aesthetic statements that speak to the collective experiences of his audience, navigating between personal identity and universal appeal. As Zazai puts it: “It’s more that the viewer, the community, the art community around me has seen the cultural identity aspect in the work over me voicing it.”

Through the three reframing tactics we have discussed, the exhibition paints an implicit contrast against the backdrop of mainstream media representation, which reproduces a series of frames underpinning the public understanding of Afghanistan and its people. The creation of a decentered street art map situates Artlords’ work within global aesthetics, contrasting with the predominant representation of arts from the region as a peripheral movement that emerged by emulating aesthetics initiated in the West. The emphasis on ordinary life in the city contrasts with the spectacularized and dramatized portrayal of Kabul as a city at war. The display of Zazai’s formalist aesthetic research contrasts with the frequent culturalization of migrant artists, which often focus on stereotypical cultural symbols of their country of origin.

Counter-Narrating Afghanistan: Against Narratives of War, Conflicts, Ignorance, and Despair, Projecting a Narrative of Hope

The exhibition employs counter-narration as its main strategy to challenge dominant representations of Afghanistan. This approach is evident in the educational components integrated into the exhibition’s design, aimed at bridging the knowledge gap among Canadians regarding Afghanistan. To address this, the curator implemented educational components within the exhibition’s scenography to provide context and facilitate understanding. The introductory segment of the exhibition employed a Socratic method of inquiry, prompting visitors to confront and question their preconceived notions about Afghanistan. Curator Marianne Fenton explains, “We thought: what are some of the preconceptions that people come with, start with that and respond to those things in particular… We wanted to lead with questions. Rather than giving people answers, ask people questions to encourage them to think.” By displaying questions on the wall, such as “Is Islam the most ancient religion of Afghanistan?” alongside relevant answers, the exhibition aims to move beyond simplistic associations and provide a deeper understanding of the country’s history and complexity.

Representative of the counter-narrative strategy is the segment on Artlords, whose work is intertwined with Afghanistan’s tumultuous history, characterized by multiple invasions and conflicts. The collective work of Artlords prominently features visual representations of war, such as tanks, bombs, and military installations, juxtaposed with recurring symbols of peace like doves, hearths, butterflies, and pencils drawn instead of ammunition. Their artworks clearly place the quest for peace and healing at the forefront of their artistic expression. “We thought it was like a healing workshop in the street of Kabul,”Footnote 4 the founder of Artlords explained. Most pieces in the Afghanistan My Love exhibition focus on humanitarian themes, like children, women, and education symbols. While the “I See You” mural stands out for its political critique, the exhibition overall aligns with the collective’s mission of social transformation through art and culture, echoing narratives promoted by humanitarian organizations. The exhibition’s counter-narrative approach, which aims to substitute a narrative of despair that dominates media representations of Afghanistan by offering a narrative of hope, might inadvertently accentuate the “apolitical” lens that some humanitarian narratives promote (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Source: photograph of the artwork by the author

Afghan girl (Artlords), refugee (Artlords).

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This content also results from the challenge of mediating artworks deeply connected to the Afghan context to an audience largely unfamiliar with it. Curator Marianne Fenton’s task was to bridge this gap, selecting works that would resonate within the museum’s space without being reductive. This involved deciphering the artworks’ cultural codes, which required external assistance and a significant amount of cultural translation. The themes chosen for the exhibition—corruption and women’s rights—mirror those prevalent in media narratives about Afghanistan, not out of a desire to perpetuate these frames, but due to similar constraints: limited knowledge of the internal context and the need to engage a diverse museum audience, largely unfamiliar with the intricacies of the Afghan context.

The exhibition emphasized participation, aiming for a collective effort in shaping a new narrative rather than a one-way educational message. Members of the Artlords collective, who were recently arrived refugee artists, came together at the museum to help paint a mural designed specifically for the museum. Marianne Fenton recalls: “Every Saturday, for 12 weeks, for three hours, we had facilitators there and ArtLords members who were there to help audiences complete the mural.” In the mural, the iconic Afghan Bamiyan Buddhas stand against the backdrop of the Canadian Rockies, while a young girl, clutching a map of Afghanistan under her arm, enters the scene as a displaced figure transitioning into a new context. “She is literally bringing in Afghanistan with her.” Fenton comments, “everything that Afghanistan represent, her history, her culture, her stories.” For the founder of Artlords: “Inviting people to be part of it is a rewarding thing for us. They internalize our message and own a piece of that art.” This message is not just about Afghanistan, but also to inspire empathy toward Afghan immigrants in Canada: To commemorate the community was important from the viewpoint of viewers in Canada: to say “they are not just refugees with problems, they come with food, with music… they bring a lot of richness to Canada.”Footnote 5

Conclusion

Contrary to the pervasive assumption of an inherently positive power of the arts in promoting “positive” views of migration (Marchevska & Defrin, 2023; Schramm et al., 2019), we have argued that the complex processes in which art productions and diaspora artists engage with dominant migration frames require critical analysis. While the Aga Khan Museum’s Afghanistan, My Love exhibition explicitly aimed to challenge simplistic representations of migrants and their home countries, the realization of such an ambition faces a number of challenges and hurdles.

By elaborating on the conceptual distinction between reframing tactics and counter-narrating strategies, we have offered a critical lens on the ways the arts engage with migration narratives. On the one hand, reframing aims to alter the existing framework through which migration is understood. It aims to change the lens through which we view migrants. It seeks to disrupt established frames of reference, which are embedded in institutional practices. This implicit approach intends to challenge deeply ingrained societal views by acting on internationalized representations that are often unconscious. On the other hand, counter-narrating seeks to introduce alternative stories that run explicitly counter to dominant ones. It serves to counteract negative stereotypes by offering positive stories and consensual values. This explicit approach aims to trigger conscientization: counter-narratives can be powerful in rallying communities. However, the constrain of rhetorical effectiveness can lead to a reproduction of familiar frames.

By featuring multilocated, diasporic artists, the Afghanistan My Love exhibition disrupts the conventional binary of host country and country of origin and the framing of migration as a linear process. The exhibition aims to achieve both objectives of offering a subjective view of Afghanistan by artists who hold an intimate and personal connection to the country while refraining from the labeling of Afghan artists and instead mobilizing diaspora artists, introduced as global artists. The exhibition highlighted the complexity of Afghan identities. Contrary to mainstream media portrayals, the artists in the exhibition reveal multifaceted identities that weave together their Afghan heritage, diasporic experiences, and global connections. This portrayal challenges simplistic narratives and stereotypes, offering a more comprehensive understanding of Afghan identity. It moves beyond dichotomic representations showing how diverse influences are mutually enriching and intertwine within the context of international mobility.

While the counter-narrative strategy aims at correcting misconceptions explicitly, it can also unintentionally reinforce dominant frames. The introduction narratives of hope are intended to create a counter-narrative against the predominant stories of conflict. But doing so also reinforces a dominant framing that associates Afghanistan with war, which is narrated without an in-depth exploration of its political complexities. Likewise, the portrayal of women and girls as symbols of hope and aspiration for progress may perpetuate the idea of them needing external intervention, aligning with media depictions of Afghanistan and portraying the West as a universal savior of women’s rights. However, counter-narrative strategies really come down to igniting a collective process through the arts (Martiniello, 2015). By setting up interactive spaces and experiments, the exhibition mobilized the potential of the arts to create connections, enabling encounters among communities with diverse ethnic backgrounds residing in the same locality. This collective counter-narration, while not presenting a reframing of Afghanistan that distinctly challenges mainstream representations of the country, enables encounters and the collective processing of a complex reality.

The various approaches through which the arts address migration narratives reflect broader challenges museums face in choosing how to engage their audiences effectively. On the one hand, reframing migration narratives in the museum space is embedded in the notion that the museum, like a ritual space, has the power and duty to elevate its audience toward a more accurate understanding of human mobility. The concept of the museum as a ritual suggests that its design can act as a transformative force. This requires a carefully curated space that acknowledges the complexities of migration, aiming to enlighten visitors by presenting a nuanced understanding through the mediation of aesthetic experiences. On the other hand, counter-narrating migration in the museum space entails engaging with the audience’s beliefs, not dismissing them as ignorance but rather entering into a dialogical process to move toward a more balanced narrative, even at the cost of some simplifications. The participatory museum approach considers that the messages taken from an exhibit can vary as widely as the visitors themselves. Therefore, it emphasizes engaging the public starting from their existing knowledge, which may involve simplification and pedagogy.

This highlights the need to further explore the respective effects of reframing and counter-narrating strategies in the context of audience engagement. While reframing may be praised by expert audiences for challenging stereotypes, counter-narrating might be more transformative for a broader audience. Future studies could shed light on these impacts by using interviews or questionnaires with audience members to analyze their attitudes before and after the exhibition.

The relevance of this study extends beyond this particular exhibition and offers broader implications for researchers and practitioners in the fields of arts and migration. The analytical distinction between reframing and counter-narrating provides a useful framework to critically assess efforts to engage with migration narratives through the arts, highlighting the dilemma in challenging dominant frames. Close attention to the various semiotic resources used by artists, the institutional and curatorial strategies, and the discursive context in which art is produced and exhibited is essential for a more critical and informed understanding of the role of the arts in societal debates about migration.