1 Introduction

Education is a fundamental human right on which we can build peace and promote sustainable development (UNESCO, 2020b). Furthermore, the right of children and young people with special educational needs and/or disabilities (SEND) to be educated in the same classrooms together with their typically developing peers is protected by national laws, policies, international conventions and declarations (UNESCO, 1994; United Nations, 2016). However, according to the updated reports of international organizations, the commitment to Sustainable Development Goal 4 (SDG 4) to ensure inclusive and equitable quality education has not been realized to the extent that it was inspired by “Education for All” pioneers (UNESCO, 2020a; United Nations, 2018). Mitchell (2015b) argued that inclusive education is a multi-faceted concept that consists of ten facets. For each of these facets, criteria are specified and indicators are suggested (Table 1):

Table 1 The model of inclusive education: a multifaceted concept
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The ineffective implementation of inclusive education led to the investigation of the obstacles arising from the aforementioned complex network of facets. This investigation resulted in the creation of an educational application entitled “Waking Up In the Morning” (WUIM) which delivers content for teaching Activities of Daily Living and supports the education and treatment of individuals with SEND in inclusive settings (Kaimara, 2022). The extensive literature review carried out for WUIM revealed that teachers’ attitudes constitute one of the key barriers to the implementation of inclusive education. However, teachers’ unwillingness to engage in inclusive educational programs is due more to a lack of educational resources and less to prejudice or stereotypes and stigma about disability (Kaimara, Deliyannis et al., 2022a). Concurrently, the research concluded that educational systems that promote inclusive education must take advantage of digital transformation to develop transmedia interactive applications among which are digital educational games (DEGs) (Daniela, 2021, 2022; European Commission, 2020; Ifenthaler et al., 2012). Within this context, the primary aim of WUIM was to develop flexible gamified learning materials to bridge the gap between students with and without SEND. To this end, the pedagogical affordances of DEGs and their contribution to inclusive education were examined. In reviewing the pedagogical affordances, research questions emerged that are directly relevant to those who will be called upon to implement games in the classroom, namely the teachers. These questions address teachers’ perceptions of the suitability of DEGs as teaching tools and their readiness to put them into practice. The purpose of this paper, therefore, is to highlight the lessons learned during the design and development of WUIM providing theoretical knowledge, methodological solutions and practical competencies to the educational community, so that teachers together with their students, regardless of cognitive, physical or emotional state, can easily create low-cost digital educational applications, leveraging cutting-edge technology, such as Augmented Reality (AR) and Virtual Reality (VR).

2 Theoretical Background

Constructing a society that values equity and human rights is founded on achieving inclusive education which constitutes the SDG 4 of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations. Additionally, UNESCO recommends six actions towards inclusion (UNESCO, 2020b): Action 1: Establish clear definitions of what is meant by inclusion and equity in education, Action 2: Use evidence to identify contextual barriers to participation and progress of learners, Action 3: Ensure that teachers are supported in promoting inclusion and equity, Action 4: Design the curriculum and assessment procedures with all learners in mind, Action 5: Structure and manage education systems in ways that engage all learners, Action 6: Involve communities in the development and implementation of policies that promote inclusion and equity in education. International experience, research and policy documents combined with UNESCO’s six proposed actions for inclusive education formed the guidelines for WUIM design.

2.1 Basic Principles and Prerequisites for the Implementation of Inclusive Education

“Inclusion is not just about disability, nor just about schools. Inclusion is about social justice. What kind of world do we want to create and how should we educate children for that world? What kind of skills and commitments do people need to thrive in a diverse society?” (Sapon-Shevin, 2003, p. 26). Inclusive education is not the end in itself but the means (Armstrong & Barton, 2008) that contributes to the realisation of an inclusive society and the emergence of human rights as a policy-making compass. Therefore, the issue is about equity, free access, social justice and the struggle for a society without discrimination. These principles should be at the heart of any educational policy and practice. The positive outcomes of inclusive education affect the social, academic, cognitive and physical development of children with and without SEND (Cologon, 2013). Although the attendance of students with SEND in their neighbourhood school defines the central feature of inclusive education, its practice goes beyond their simple placement in the same structures and requires the transformation of schools on a political, social and cultural level (Mitchell, 2015a; Wehmeyer, 2006). Consequently, inclusive education policy is a process that involves “inclusive education practices” and “inclusive education pedagogy” (Moriña, 2020). To conclude, inclusive education is a broad concept that encompasses all efforts to reduce exclusion from school programs, culture and community, while on the other hand, inclusive education practices refer to teaching practices and teacher actions that promote student learning and participation, thus reducing marginalization. Finally, inclusive education pedagogy consists of all the decisions made by teachers, which are determined not only by their knowledge, ability and actions, but also by their values ​​and beliefs for their students, the nature of teaching and learning, and social influences (Florian, 2014; Moriña, 2020). The benefits of co-educating students with and without SEND arise from the principles of contemporary pedagogical approaches, such as personalised learning and team-based learning. Personalised learning emphasizes students’ profiles, needs and desires (Bray & McClaskey, 2013), while team-based learning strategy involves activities organised around social interaction and interpersonal relationships that develop in groups of students working together to solve a problem, complete a task, or create a product (Smith & MacGregor, 1992). Innovative educational approaches that are fully compatible with “Education for All” practices, compensate for the biological limitations of students with SEND and promote their access to formal education.

2.2 Digital Transformation for Equitable Education

The European Commission’s strategic priority focuses on the immediate adaptation of education and training systems through digital transformation (European Commission, 2020). As a result, improving teachers’ and learners’ digital skills and technological equipment, in terms of software and devices, are key objectives for most countries. Enrichment of the classroom with digital devices, redesign of the learning process, artificial intelligence, personalised learning, gamification and cutting-edge technologies such as AR and VR are the cornerstones for achieving digital transformation in education (Newman, 2018). Nevertheless, prerequisites for a successful digital transformation include teachers’ digital literacy, high-quality educational content, easy-to-use tools and secure platforms that respect privacy and ethics issues. Teachers are highly skilled and knowledgeable professionals and education systems must provide them with access to continuing professional development tailored to their needs and subject matter. According to the European Commission’s Action Plan (2020), training in digital education methods should be mainstreamed into all initial teacher education programmes. Given the diversity of most school classrooms, awareness of special education techniques and competence to develop accessible education materials are considered essential skills for all teachers. The above provides a new orientation for digital transformation and technology-enhanced learning. VR and AR are often used to develop advanced educational materials such as DEGs that provide educational content thanks to their structural features that attract attention and foster motivation, enjoyment, critical thinking, communication, collaboration and children’s creativity (Kaimara et al., 2020). This work focuses on the affordances of VR, AR, games and gamification and their dynamic synergy in redesigning learning for students with SEND and supporting personalised learning in inclusive educational environments utilizing the transmedia learning principles.

2.2.1 VR Learning Environments for Students with Special Educational Needs and/or Disabilities

The educational benefits of VR for students with and without SEND have been recognised thanks to their unique affordances, i.e., immersion, interactivity, information intensity, imagination, involvement, presence and representational fidelity (Dalgarno & Lee, 2010). The use of VR, either as a learning environment or as a tool for diagnosing and/or rehabilitating individuals with SEND has positive effects. Through VR, opportunities are provided for experiential learning in a safe, controlled, repeatable and adaptable environment, reducing potential real-life risks and allowing students to learn from their mistakes without danger. At the same time, VR encourages and enhances students’ participation (Dixon et al., 2019; Newbutt et al., 2020). The content of VR applications is often drawn from a wide range of everyday activities, such as the acquisition of functional and communication skills, i.e., dressing, shopping and food preparation (Kaimara et al., 2022). These skills are of particular concern to parents, teachers and carers and are vital for students with SEND quality of life (Kaimara, Oikonomou et al., 2021).

2.2.2 AR Learning Environments for Students with Special Educational Needs and/or Disabilities

AR-based educational interventions support sensory immersion, presence and flow, positively influencing students’ knowledge, understanding, creativity and imagination (Kye & Kim, 2008). Current research findings indicate that AR applications are beneficial options for inclusive learning environments, because they combine many of the principles and guidelines of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and Differentiated Instruction (DI) (Mcmahon, 2014; Quintero et al., 2019; Tomlinson et al., 2003). For example, the principle of multiple representations of UDL is confirmed by the capability of AR to present audio-visual content. The principle of action and expression is demonstrated through students’ physical interaction with the devices and the environment while seeking information. The added pedagogical value of AR is associated with collaborative learning provided between peers and teachers through their mobile devices while avoiding isolation (Ke & Hsu, 2015). AR technology has been leveraged in several educational activities aiming to cultivate academic skills as well as communication and functional skills, such as Activities of Daily Living (ADLs), social interaction, and reducing visual, auditory or motor barriers (Quintero et al., 2019; Yuen et al., 2011).

2.2.3 Pedagogical Affordances of Games and Gamification

Although the dynamics of games in learning have been recognized since ancient times, in recent years the debate on the use of games in schools has come to the forefront of research (Daniela, 2021; Kaimara & Deliyannis, 2019; van Roy & Zaman, 2017). Games act as effective learning environments and fully support immersive learning experiences by creating intrinsic motivation according to self-determination theory (Paras & Bizzocchi, 2005; Ryan & Deci, 2000). The power of games in learning is founded by their structural elements (Prensky, 2007): rules, goals and objectives, outcomes and feedback, conflict, competition, challenges, interaction, representation, and story. In addition to structural elements, two important features of games, the gameplay (i.e., the way a game is played) and the game mechanics (i.e., the available tools with which players interact to complete game activities) are essential to motivate learners. Introducing game elements into learning materials enhances social interaction, improves student performance and engages them in a learning activity that in its traditional form would be tedious, demanding or boring (Plass et al., 2015). Thus, effective learning is based on the quality of game design features and gamification techniques (Fokides et al., 2021). Designing innovative games requires an effective transdisciplinary design team consisting of developers, educational psychologists and experts in learning theories, instructional content, cognitive goal analysis and user experience (UX) design. For games aimed at children with SEND, the participation of special education teachers and special educational needs (SEN) professionals, such as school psychologists, social workers, and language and occupational therapists is necessary. However, the most important is the contribution of students with SEND themselves because they can highlight issues that only a person experiencing cognitive or sensory limitations would be able to identify. Participatory design and formative assessment are methods that ensure the achievement of game goals (Black & Wiliam, 2009; Kaimara et al., 2021c).

2.2.4 Transmedia Learning: The Dynamic Synergy of Pedagogical Models and Media

Technology-enhanced learning brings back to the forefront the research field on the relationship between pedagogy and technology (Daniela, 2019). In recent years, storytelling utilizes images, spoken and written language, as well as modern media, such as television, cinema, comics and games that have been developed with VR and AR (Kaimara, Deliyannis et al., 2022a; Rodrigues and Bidarra, 2016; Scolari, 2009) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
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The concept of transmedia [figure created by the author, adapted from Pratten (2015) (p. 3)]

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When story elements, i.e., theme, characters, setting, point of view, plot, conflict and resolution, are spread through verbal and visual channels systematically and in conjunction with one another, we define the field of transmedia storytelling. The result of transmedia storytelling is the construction of a narrative world in which each element is separate but uniquely contributes to a larger whole (Jenkins, 2006). In an educational context, both inside and outside classrooms, the use of transmedia storytelling techniques and smart devices to create immersive environments makes it easier for students and teachers to extend their learning experience. This dynamic ecosystem enables the synergy of different learning models. Therefore, transmedia learning combines the principles of traditional learning theories and modern pedagogical approaches and methods with media, tools and platforms available so far, emphasizing the active role of students in discovering information and constructing their knowledge within the community (Fleming, 2013). The goal of transmedia learning is all students’ success, regardless of possible cognitive or biological limitations, e.g., learning difficulties, or hearing or visual impairments. Therefore, in inclusive education environments, the synergy of DI and UDL with modern technology, both at the software and devices level, is a new educational strategy that facilitates students and teachers to explore new fields of learning through participation, experimentation, interpretation and expression and to exploit the group dynamics (Fleming, 2013; Rodrigues & Bidarra, 2016).

2.3 Factors Influencing Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education and Digital Educational Games

Teachers are key implementers of any educational innovation (Office of Education Research, 2018). Research has concluded that the issues of realising innovations in education or, conversely, resistance to changing pedagogical practices are directly related to teachers’ attitudes.

2.3.1 Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education

Teachers are considered to be effective facilitators of inclusive education policy implementation (De Boer, 2012; Schmidt & Vrhovnik, 2015). Therefore, understanding teachers’ attitudes is crucial and is assumed a strong predictor of successful inclusion (Sharma et al., 2012). The research revealed that teachers’ attitudes range from neutral to positive and are influenced by their demographic characteristics, such as gender and age, as well as by factors related to their education, professional development and continuing training, years of teaching experience, self-confidence, self-efficacy, supportive services, teachers’ previous contact with people with disabilities, fears and concerns, knowledge of legislation and finally the type and severity of students’ disability (De Boer, 2012; MacFarlane & Woolfson, 2013; Sharma et al., 2012).

2.3.2 Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Digital Educational Games

Redesigning education in the digital age is also highly dependent on teachers. Therefore, recognising teachers’ attitudes towards DEGs is fundamental in research on DEGs introduction in schools. Even though the majority of teachers acknowledge that DEGs enable their students to develop a wide range of strategies that can be significant for learning, such as problem-solving, sequence learning, inductive reasoning and memorization, and generally presents positive attitude towards their use, few teachers have decided to include them in their courses, mainly because they do not really believe that DEGs are efficient teaching tools (An, 2018; Gros, 2015; Kaimara, Fokides et al., 2021). Major factors affecting teachers’ attitudes towards digitization and DEGs are teachers’ digital competencies, their personal gaming experiences, workload, self-efficacy and students, parents, and colleagues’ perceptions (Daniela & Žogla, 2013; Mertala, 2019; Roll & Ifenthaler, 2021; Sánchez-Mena & Martí-Parreño, 2017). In addition to teachers’ own experiences influencing their self-efficacy and attitudes, the characteristics of DEGs themselves encourage or discourage their integration into everyday teaching practice. Research on teachers’ intention to use DEGs concluded that the perceived usefulness of games positively affects teachers’ attitudes (Sánchez-Mena et al., 2017). Variables such as teachers’ involvement in designing DEGs and their experience gained during the design have demonstrated a positive effect on their attitudes and perceptions of using games in their classrooms (An & Cao, 2017).

2.4 Research Questions

The main aim of the research was to identify the decisive factors of inclusive education and to highlight the gaps in its implementation, according to the conceptual framework defined by Mitchell (2015b). To achieve the main aim, one goal and four objectives were set. WUIM’s goal was to provide an integrated educational module that can be applied in inclusive learning environments. The four objectives were related to the attitudes and research materials used as learning resources, i.e., (1) examination of teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education, (2) examination of teachers’ attitudes towards DEGs, (3) creation of the educational material and (4) evaluation of the educational material by children and young adults with SEND and their SEN professionals. To examine teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education and digital games for learning and teaching, two research questions were formulated (RQ1 and RQ2). Regarding the learning resources, a main research question (MRQ) and two supplementary research questions (SRQ1 and SRQ2) were posed. Therefore, five research questions were derived from the aforementioned research goal and objectives (Table 2):

Table 2 Research Questions
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3 Methodology

Considering the complexity of the WUIM, a mixed research approach using quantitative and qualitative research methods was required. For the quantitative research methodology, questionnaires with closed-ended questions were used, while questionnaires with open-ended questions, observation through the think-aloud protocol in focus groups and structured interviews were used as qualitative data collection techniques.

3.1 Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education and Digital Educational Games

To record teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education and DEGs, the research sample consisted of two hundred and sixty-five (265) undergraduate students from twenty-five Pedagogical Departments of Greek Universities based on the conviction that as graduates they will soon be called upon to join the human resources of schools and implement educational innovation (Kaimara, 2022; Kaimara, Fokides et al., 2021, 2022). The participants were selected using the cluster sampling method (Creswell, 2014) and were 78 (29.4%) men and 187 (70.6%) women, mean age of 24 years (M = 23.96, SD = 1.71). The data collection instruments were two questionnaires administered electronically via one common Google Form and forwarded to students by the Departmental Secretariat. Participants were informed that the survey will be conducted voluntarily, their anonymity will be respected and consent to their participation will be deemed to have been given by completing the online questionnaire. The questionnaire was available for about a month and a half, from early February to mid-March 2019.

3.1.1 Data Collection Instrument for Inclusive Education

The data collection instrument for teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education was a three-part questionnaire that combined a qualitative and quantitative approach. In the first part, participants filled out their demographics. Demographics were the study’s independent variables (IVs), i.e., age, gender, field of study (humanities and social sciences, natural and technical sciences, special education), significant interactions with a person with disabilities, level of training for students with SEND education, knowledge of national legislation or policy concerning people with disabilities, level of expertise in teaching students with SEND and teaching experience of students with SEND. The questions in the second part referred to the participants’ sentiments, attitudes and concerns regarding inclusive education according to the scale “The Sentiments, Attitudes, and Concerns about Inclusive Education Revised (SACIE-R) Scale for Measuring Pre-Service Teachers’ Perceptions about Inclusion” created by Forlin Earle, Loreman and Sharma (2011) containing 15 multiple choice statements-questions, which were the dependent variables (DVs), and to which participants answered on a four-point Likert scale. In the third part, the participants were written additional comments regarding the open question: “What do you think is the biggest obstacle to the implementation of inclusive education?“(Kaimara, 2022).

3.1.2 Data Collection Instrument for Digital Educational Games

The instrument for data collection regarding teachers’ attitudes towards digital games was a three-part questionnaire that combined a qualitative and quantitative approach. The first part referred to the participant’s demographics which were the study’s independent variables (IVs), i.e., age, gender, field of study (humanities and social sciences, natural and technical sciences, special education), additional ICT training (apart from in-course training), successful attendance of DEGs-related courses within curriculum courses, years and frequency of engagement with digital games. The questions of the second section, which constituted the quantitative approach concerned pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards digital games, their view on the usefulness of games and their intention to use them in the context of collaborative learning, were based on the scale created by Martín-del-Pozo κ.ά. (2017). The questionnaire contained 33 statements-questions which were the dependent variables (DVs) and to which participants were invited to express an opinion on a five-point Likert scale (Kaimara, Fokides et al., 2022). In the third and final part of the questionnaire, participants were allowed to submit additional comments on the open question: “What do you think is the biggest obstacle to integrating digital educational games into the learning process?“ The answers to this question, which were analysed thematically, constituted the qualitative part of the questionnaire (Kaimara, Fokides et al., 2021; Saldaña, 2015).

3.2 Design and Development of WUIM Transmedia Educational Application

WUIM is a transmedia educational application aimed at developing an ADLs module for individuals with or without SEND. The application tells the story of a child who tries to get ready for school but has to choose the correct order in which to complete the morning activities (morning routine). WUIM consists of three educational games to meet individuals’ needs and preferences regardless of their cognitive profile:

  1. (1)

    a classic wooden board game called “WUIM-Puzzle” based on the principles of the Montessori method which among others includes hands-on objects that enhance cognitive functions.

  2. (2)

    an AR application called “WUIM-AR” which recognises the content depicted in WUIM-Puzzle (triggers) and uses videos for overlay.

  3. (3)

    a VR called “WUIM-VR” which combines the same images used in WUIM-Puzzle (as buttons) and the same videos used in WUIM-AR in the form of interactive 3D videos.

A mixed design and development method was chosen to create the educational games, i.e., the “ADDIE” Instructional Design Model which is the acronym for Analyse, Design, Develop, Implement, and Evaluate (Fig. 2), the Four-Dimensional Framework and the Game Development Life Cycle (Fig. 3) (de Freitas & Oliver, 2006; Dousay, 2018; Kaimara, Deliyannis et al., 2022a; Ramadan & Widyani, 2013). Depending on the type of game, a different development process was followed. Thus, the WUIM-Puzzle was created with constructions and prints, while the digital ones, i.e., WUIM-VR and WUIM-AR were created using Unity Engine and Vuforia. The content of digital games was developed using 360° videos, following all stages of film production, emphasizing art and aesthetics (Ransburg et al., 2008). WUIM’s three games share the same content. Notwithstanding the games can be played separately, the overall learning experience is enhanced by playing all three games based on the transmediality provided by WUIM. In terms of technological equipment, everyday low-cost devices are used: smartphones and tablets for WUIM-AR and VR glasses that adapt to smartphones for WUIM-VR.

Fig. 2
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 A mixed design and development method (figure created by the author)

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Further information for content design and development is available in the published works “Waking up in the morning (WUIM): A transmedia project for daily living skills training” (see Kaimara et al., 2021), “Αn innovative transmedia-based game development method for inclusive education” (see Kaimara et al., 2021) and “Content Design for Inclusive Educational Environments” (see Kaimara, Deliyannis et al., 2022a).

3.3 Evaluation of WUIM: Participants, Procedure, Instruments and Duration

An ideal evaluation method for a complex educational application such as WUIM is a combined evaluation by the design team (internal evaluation) during the design and alpha phase of the game development process according to the Ramadan and Widyani (2013) model (Fig. 3) and by experts and potential users (formative assessment) during the beta phase.

Fig. 3
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Game design, development and evaluation process (figure adapted by the author)

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Formative assessment by potential users themselves remains the primary method of measuring an application’s effectiveness (Black & Wiliam, 2009) and therefore, this type of assessment has been chosen. The repeated internal evaluations were carried out by the eight experts of the transdisciplinary design team during the period of design and content development and before the applications were given to experts and potential users for external evaluation. The design team consisted of an educational psychologist, an informatics and interactive media expert, two game developers, a director, a photographer and two video and audio editing experts. Aiming to create a gaming environment that is as simple as possible, the design team evaluated the usability and playability of WUIM’s three games with multiple interface tests and internal evaluations using the System Usability Scale (SUS) (Brooke, 1996) and Serious Games Evaluation Scale (SGES) (Fokides et al., 2019). SGES highlights eleven factors that shape users’ subjective perception of an application’s learning effectiveness. The eleven factors are classified into four groups: (1) Content, (2) Technical characteristics, (3) User’s state of mind and (4) Characteristics that enable learning. Formative assessors were two experts (developers) and eighteen potential users, i.e., eleven children and young adults with SEND and seven SEN professionals. The eleven (N = 11) children and young adults with SEND formed the students’ group. Two students with moderate intellectual disability (IQ 35–49, mental age from 6 to 9 years), three students with severe intellectual disability (IQ 20–34, mental age from 3 to 6 years), three students with cerebral palsy (one with severe intellectual disability), one student with Down syndrome with severe intellectual disability, one student with autism spectrum disorder with severe intellectual disability, tactile defensiveness and hyperactivity, and one student with autism spectrum disorder without intellectual disability. SEN professionals focus group consisted of seven (N = 7) specialised therapists for individuals with disabilities: a social worker, an occupational therapist, a speech therapist, a health visitor, a nurse, a special auxiliary staff, and a physiotherapy assistant.

A mixed research methodology was adopted based on a variety of methods, such as questionnaires (SUS and SGES) and structured interviews of children and young adults with SEND using the same questionnaires. To gain a better understanding of the application’s interface, an evaluation of the gameplay and game mechanics was planned. This evaluation aimed to explore the game conditions of the overall application. The subjective views of children and young adults with SEND were recorded through observation in real conditions combined with the think-aloud protocol (Kaimara, Deliyannis, et al., 2022a). The total duration of content design, development and evaluation lasted from June 2019 to July 2020 (with a break due to the Covid-19 pandemic).

4 Results

4.1 RQ1: Pre-service Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education

From the data analysis in the quantitative research phase, three factors emerged regarding the 265 pre-service teachers’ views on inclusive education. These factors formed three new variables named according to the terms used by Forlin et al. (2011): (1) Concerns, (2) Attitudes and (3) Sentiments. It was concluded that pre-service teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education were positive as the mean was well above 3.00 (M = 3.38, SD = 0.57) on a four-point Likert scale (Kaimara, 2022). Regarding concerns, students appeared to be quite worried when coming into contact with people with disabilities (M = 2.96). In terms of sentiments, students expressed fear at the idea that they could have a type of disability (M = 2.36) (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4
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Pre-service teachers’ views on inclusive education

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In the qualitative part of the research, pre-service teachers ranked the main barriers that hinder the successful implementation of inclusive education as follows: (1) social perceptions, (2) insufficient teachers’ training, (3) lack of political will to implement legislation, (4) lack of infrastructure and educational materials and (5) individual student differences (Table 3).

Table 3 Barriers to inclusive education
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4.2 RQ2: Pre-Service Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Digital Educational Games

The quantitative part of the research led to the conclusion that the 265 future teachers (1) intend to use DEGs in their lessons since the mean for this factor was above 4.0 (M = 4.21, SD = 0.79) on a five-point Likert scale (2), consider them a relatively useful teaching approach (M = 3.96, SD = 0.67) and (3) generally have a slightly positive attitude, as the mean for this factor was slightly above the midpoint and the standard deviation was quite wide (M = 3.41, SD = 1.52) (Kaimara, Fokides et al., 2022) (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5
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Pre-service teachers’ views on the use of digital educational games

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The reluctance of the 265 future teachers to use DEGs in the learning process found in the quantitative research phase is interpreted by the qualitative analysis of the responses. Teachers’ responses were ranked into five barrier factors: (1) limited financial resources, (2) teachers’ preference for traditional teaching methods based on stereotyped perceptions of the value of digital games, (3) lack of teacher training, (4) lack of infrastructure and educational materials (DEGs) and (5) lack of education policy (Kaimara, Fokides et al., 2021) (Table 4).

Table 4 Barriers to implementing digital games in classrooms
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4.3 SRQ1 and SRQ2: Evaluation of WUIM Educational Materials

Potential users rated all three games with a score of 4 or 5 on the five-point Likert scale of SGES (Kaimara, Oikonomou et al., 2021). A comparison of results between the two groups, i.e., individuals with SEND and SEN professionals, highlights that children and young adults with SEND rated the games more positively than their therapists. Although the research sample was too small to yield valid results, it appears that the overall learning experience based on VR (4.65) is slightly better than AR (4.5) in both groups. VR’s advantage over AR lies in the state of mind factors: presence, immersion and enjoyment. Regarding the AR game, results both via questionnaires and observation showed that AR facilitates team-based learning and collaboration. However, it was immediately recognised that children with difficulties in fine motor skills could not stabilize easily tablets above the triggers. For this reason, it was decided to provide special tablet cases. Further information for evaluation is available in the published work (see Kaimara, Deliyannis et al., 2022a).

5 Discussion: Lessons Learned and Implementation Challenges

The initial intention of this work was the design and development of digital educational games that would facilitate teachers to estimate in practice their students’ potential in a diverse classroom. To create WUIM transmedia educational application, an extensive literature review was carried out both in the scientific field of design and development from a pedagogical and technological point of view, as well as in issues related to gamification, special education and disability. “Can educational applications based on transmedia learning principles, cutting-edge technology and game elements support inclusive education?” was the main research question. The evaluation of educational applications answered the two supplementary questions, i.e., SRQ1: What are the views of children and young adults with SEND on the impact of the WUIM educational application on improving their learning? and SRQ2: What are the views of SEN professionals on the impact of the WUIM educational application on improving the learning and treatment of children and young adults with SEND? A basic educational prerequisite before implementing any educational material in classrooms is the readiness of those who will be called upon to put it into practice, that is, the teachers. In this light, investigating teachers’ willingness to engage with inclusive games such as WUIM was necessary. For this reason, a parallel literature review and original research were conducted to ensure two educational prerequisites so that the WUIM can be used as a good practice guide for the design and development of inclusive transmedia educational systems. The questions posed for the research conducted alongside the design and development of the WUIM were: RQ1: What are teachers’ attitudes towards inclusive education?, RQ2: What are teachers’ attitudes towards digital games for learning and teaching?

5.1 Pre-Service Teachers’ Attitudes Towards Inclusive Education and Digital Educational Games

The research findings are consistent with the literature and reveal that although pre-service teachers are positive about the implementation of both inclusive education and DEGs, they express reservations directly related to their level of training and readiness. Among the major barriers to inclusive education, teachers mentioned lack of time to be prepared for their lessons, teachers’ preference for traditional teaching methods and their stereotyped perceptions, inadequate training in special education practices, lack of supportive staff, lack of appropriate teaching materials, class size and severity of disability (Kaimara, 2022; Pappas et al., 2018; Schmidt & Vrhovnik, 2015; Tsakiridou & Polyzopoulou, 2014). Regarding teachers’ attitudes towards DEGs, teachers’ and leadership’s perceptions as well as the lack of resources are also mentioned. It is noteworthy that SEN teachers have a more positive attitude than general education teachers and recognize the importance of smart learning environments (Campigotto et al., 2013; Kaimara, 2022; Liu et al., 2013). This positive attitude, however, depends on the teacher’s skills in to use of technology and similarly on the usability and flexibility of applications. Hsu and Chiou (2019) argued that future teachers may be excited about introducing DEGs into the classroom, but many of them lack the necessary skills and knowledge to support digital game-based learning. Therefore, it can be concluded that future teachers identified two categories of barriers which are referred to in the literature as internal and external barriers (Ertmer, 1999). Internal barriers include attitudes and external barriers related to funding, which affect the procurement of equipment and software and the carrying out of appropriate training programs. Given worldwide, legislation on both inclusive education and the usage of cutting-edge technology in schools has been harmonized with the resolutions, decisions and international declarations, it is clear that the enforcement of legislation is a matter of will that reflects both policymakers’ and teachers’ attitudes. Considering that personal experience, knowledge, social learning, values, beliefs and intentions are some of the building blocks of attitudes and are often predictive of a person’s behaviour (Ajzen & Fishbein, 2005; Hannon, 2007), it is considered necessary that teachers’ compulsory initial and ongoing training in targeted pedagogical practices and methods should begin at the University and continue with in-service training programs, for teachers to feel safer, less stressed and more efficient to teach in inclusive educational settings and to include DEGS in their daily practice.

5.2 Design, Development and Evaluation of WUIM

WUIM whose content comes from the field of Independent Living Skills was the result of the strong documentation of the pedagogical approach called “transmedia learning”. As mentioned, transmedia learning is a dynamic ecosystem that enables the synergy of different learning methods, storytelling techniques, tools and platforms available so far, emphasizing the active role of students in discovering information and constructing their knowledge within the community (Fleming, 2013). Estimated the potentials of gamification, three games using traditional and cutting-edge technologies which meet the needs and preferences of students regardless of their cognitive profile were designed and developed. Although there are academic voices who claim that games are ill-suited to school structure, the evaluation of WUIM by potential users evidenced the learning effectiveness of games, especially for individuals with SEND (Kaimara, Fokides et al., 2021). Thus, the question is no longer whether gamification works, but how it works, i.e., which elements make up its good design (van Roy & Zaman, 2017). Answers to this question are given by the way WUIM was designed, i.e., the combination of the ADDIE, Four-Dimensional Framework and the Game Development Life Cycle models. It is more than obvious that designing innovative applications to enhance learning according to the characteristics of each student and optimise the UX is a complex process, which requires an efficient transdisciplinary design team consisting of developers, educational psychologists and experts in learning theories, educational content, game design models and analysis of cognitive objectives. More specifically, the literature review of the following fields provided the theoretical and technical foundation of WUIM:

  1. (a)

    Traditional and contemporary pedagogical approaches derived from the principles of learning theories such as behaviourism and constructivism, DI, UDL and prevailing educational interventions in the field of special education.

  2. (b)

    Film production methodologies, basic principles of script-writing, directing and aesthetics.

  3. (c)

    Pedagogical affordances of cutting-edge technologies, such as virtual and augmented reality, 360ο interactive videos and models of game design and development.

  4. (d)

    Participatory content design and development.

  5. (e)

    Formative assessment.

5.3 Pedagogical Affordances of WUIM

5.3.1 Focusing on the Complementarity of Learning Theories

The systematic study and consistent interpretation of human learning through observation, hypothesis, experiment, reasoning and inference have led to a body of theories that find application in education and constitute the research field of educational psychology. The most prevalent theories, i.e., behaviourism, cognitive theories and constructivism have significantly influenced both special education, as well as educational technology. According to Montessori (1948), the developmental course and quality of learning of both typically developing children and children with SEND do not differ significantly. However, Vygotsky (1993) argued that the development of children with disabilities is determined by the social effects of their organic disability. This position created a new perspective on the socialisation, acceptance and development of children with SEND and set a unique theoretical framework for more comprehensive, inclusive and humane practice in special education (Gindis, 1999). Therefore, the in-depth study of learning theories provided the necessary tools to design the WUIM, which comprises inclusive games founded on the principles and interventions of special education, such as in-vivo instruction, play-based interventions, picture-based systems, Social Stories™, video-based instruction, computer-based interventions and educational technology. The design and development of highly-sequenced and structured curricula, programmed instructional approaches, workbooks (Darling-Hammond et al., 2001), psycho-pedagogical methods of intervention in special education, such as PECS® (Picture Exchange Communication System®) (Bondy, 2012) and ABA (Applied Behaviour Analysis) (Matson & Neal, 2009) were originated on the basic principles of Skinner’s theory. Indicatively, teaching practices derived from behaviourism include trial and error, drill and practice, tutorials, reinforcement, sequencing, directed learning, evaluation and feedback, chaining and task analysis. A fundamental principle of cognitive and constructivist theories is that learning depends on prior knowledge (Ertmer & Newby, 2013). This group of theories has shown particular interest in student motivation and the application of knowledge in extracurricular life. Focusing on children’s thinking process, their spontaneous and active participation and respect for their developmental stage summarize the important contribution of cognitive theories. Instructional strategies such as delineation, visualisation, memorisation, concept mapping, discovering, underlining, flow charts and organisers should be used specifically to support the cognitive needs of students with SEND (Al-Shammari et al., 2019). Social constructivism and humanistic approaches emphasize the value of collaborative learning and the unconditional acceptance of all students. Collaborative learning benefits students when it occurs in heterogeneous groups which is also a basic principle of Differentiated Instruction and Universal Design for Learning. If teachers are aware of the principles and good practices of learning theories, most students with SEND have great chances of being successfully included. The most effective inclusive educational practices incorporate ideas and principles from all learning theories (Steele, 2005).

5.3.2 Making Mistakes in Educational Games

When children explore the world around them during play, they effortlessly engage in five areas of freedom: (1) freedom to fail, (2) freedom to experiment, (3) freedom to shape their identity, (4) freedom to try and (5) freedom to interpret (Klopfer et al., 2009). Mistakes and defeat are key structural features of games. In games, success and failure are approached not as reward or penalty, respectively but as an opportunity for discovering, risk-taking and finally learning without the fear of punishment (Bruner, 1961; Gee, 2008; Prensky, 2005). Considering the issues of mistakes, WUIM allows “wrong” choices. In WUIM-Puzzle and WUIM-AR, in case of a “wrong” response, student-players cannot proceed to the next stage of the game, which is obviously a reflection of behaviourism. The pedagogical agent verbally reinforces students with graded “help” so that they are encouraged to try again. Whenever students choose the “correct” action they continue to the next step and the pedagogical agent confirms this action through verbal reinforcement. On the other hand, constructivism-based WUIM-VR allows students to be free to move and explore the space to discover the right path by themselves. If they wish, they ask for help from the pedagogical agent. It is worth noting that players, while wandering around the game environment, made deliberate mistakes out of curiosity to see how the game unfolds from a different perspective, confirming that the principle of discovery is a key aspect of games.

5.3.3 Transdisciplinary: The Power of Collaboration

To achieve the aim and objectives of WUIM, a transdisciplinary approach was necessary through the conjunction of content and methods coming from different disciplines. The creation of educational material should be aligned with the principles of educational psychology, pedagogy, technology and art. The educational material was based on the philosophy of digital game-based learning. Although DEGs create and enhance student motivation, this is not enough to drive learning. The learning effectiveness of DEGs is based on the balanced combination of “serious” learning and interactive entertainment. This balance was guaranteed by a transdisciplinary design team (Fig. 6), which consisted of experts in both educational content and game design and development.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Transdisciplinary: the conjunction of scientific disciplines (figure created by the author)

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Close cooperation between transdisciplinary team members was based on continuous planning, redesigning and sharing of views, ideas, concepts and approaches combining each member’s specific disciplinary background to address common real-world problems or activities. During the collaboration for WUIM development, it was explicit that the multidisciplinary research approach differs from interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary, as in the first case the team members work in parallel, and in the second case they work together, but again within the narrow limits of their specific disciplinary base, while in the third case, the members collaborate using a common conceptual framework (Heinzmann et al., 2019). Within this climate, although the author’s scientific direction is not directly related to technology and arts, managed to comprehend the processes of film production and game development and to design educational applications. Therefore, nothing is so hard if there is a willingness to collaborate and, consequently, everyone can create, especially within educational clubs of schools, where each member contributes equally to projects.

5.3.4 Collaboration, Treatment and Learning Effectiveness

From informal assessment through observation of children and young adults with SEND during gaming using the thinking-aloud protocol technique, remarkable behaviours were expressed at individual and group levels. For example, regarding team-based learning, a child with a mild intellectual disability spontaneously helped a peer with a moderate intellectual disability when they played with WUIM-Puzzle and WUIM-AR. In terms of developing a treatment climate to facilitate communication, a boy with autism spectrum disorder, severe intellectual disability and delayed speech and language development was able to make eye contact and contact with the researcher’s hands as soon as he started playing with the WUIM-Puzzle and WUIM-AR. As for WUIM-VR, due to the isolation created by the mask, the collaboration between children was ensured by monitoring the game’s progress through screens connected to the player’s device. Peers reinforced their classmates and several times took on the role of the pedagogical agent. As mentioned in Sect. 3.3, WUIM learning effectiveness was evaluated by the potential users via the SGES scale. Trend analysis of the data derived from the therapists’ responses to the SGES and structured interviews of children and young adults with SEND yielded encouraging results. These results were to some extent expected, as great excitement was observed during gaming especially when children manipulated the devices. On one hand, excitement is very promising because it motivates learners, but on the other, there is a risk that children will become attached to new digital media instead of technology-assisted learning experiences. In conclusion, according to the research results, the learning effectiveness of WUIM-AR is inversely proportional to the learning effectiveness of WUIM-VR, and the collaborative learning facilitated by WUIM-AR is inversely proportional to the collaboration supported by WUIM-VR. However, the results showed that through VR potential users understood the educational content to a greater degree, perhaps due to the isolation offered by the mask and therefore less disruption. Therefore, the learning environment provided by VR can be utilised as a learning scaffolding (Daniela & Lytras, 2019). Considering that AR enhances collaborative learning (Alzahrani, 2020; Badilla-Quintana et al., 2020; Wen, 2021) and VR improves learning, the combination of the two digital technologies as an integrated educational process that also includes traditional board games can benefit students of different learning profiles due to their complementarity. Merging traditional learning materials and cutting-edge educational technology by leveraging game design principles provides an enjoyable and stress-free interactive environment that effortlessly enhances learning and collaboration. Referring to the research questions, the results lead to the following conclusions. Regarding the MRQ “Can educational applications based on transmedia learning principles, cutting-edge technology and game elements support inclusive education?”, the formative assessment showed that WUIM can contribute to the implementation of inclusive education. This position is supported by both quantitative research and recorded behaviour of children and young adults with SEND during gaming. Regarding the SRQ1 “What are the views of children and young adults with SEND on the impact of the WUIM educational application on improving their learning?”, the potential users stated that through WUIM games, they learned the procedures to follow during their preparation at home before going to the educational centre. Finally, for SRQ2 “What are the views of special educational needs professionals on the impact of the WUIM educational application on improving the learning of children and young adults with SEND?”, SEN professionals considered that they have yet another useful tool that will make it easier for them to teach daily living skills. The most important statement was that WUIM games were not boring and they attracted children’s interest. Children enjoy dealing with technology and playing computer games, despite the difficulties they may encounter. However, the effectiveness of the WUIM games is not guaranteed as it requires a long process of applying the skills at home to maintain the skills that children have learned. Indeed, it is not clear whether WUIM has a long-term effect on improving the knowledge of individuals with SEND, as learning is a process that involves the generalization of learned skills. The effectiveness of learning is assessed based on whether people can apply the new knowledge in different environments and maintain it over time.

6 Limitations and Future work

During the field research, specific obstacles related to the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and the abrupt suspension of formal education schools were presented. The initial research design included the implementation and evaluation of WUIM in special school settings, where inclusive educational programs would take place with peers from general schools. As, even when the schools opened, the entrance of non-teaching staff into the schools was prohibited, it was decided to implement the formative assessment in an informal SEND education structure with focus groups (children and young adults with SEND and SEN professionals), supervised by the Ministry of Health. For the implementation and evaluation of WUIM, special attention was paid to the composition of focus groups of children and young adults with SEND. Each group presented diversity as it was composed of individuals with different cognitive profiles based on their diagnosis. As a result of this prohibition, the research presents two limitations:

  1. (1)

    The small sample: a total of 11 children and young adults with SEND.

  2. (2)

    The absence of an inclusive education condition with typically developing peers.

Currently, the research is ongoing and progressing with the participation of students from general and special education schools as submitted to the Ethics Committee of the Ionian University, Greece and the Hellenic Ministry of Education, according to the initial research design.

7 Conclusion

To achieve Sustainable Development Goal 4 on education, we need to define inclusion and equity in education, support teachers, identify barriers to student participation, design, evaluate and structure curricula and educational systems with all students in mind, and involve communities in policy development. Digital transformation can help make education more inclusive by providing accessible material to all students. However, we need to understand teachers’ perceptions of inclusive education and digital transformation. This research showed a weakness in implementing inclusive education legislation and a lack of user-friendly guides for teachers to create materials. Teachers identified their lack of training as a key obstacle to both inclusive education and digital content development. To address this, WUIM was created as an innovative methodology and practical guide for teachers to design and develop low-cost inclusive education systems. AR and VR were verified as the technologies that most fulfil the criteria for transmedia applications development and that better support the goals of digital games than other technologies. AR facilitates collaborative learning, and VR’s 360° videos ensure high immersion, representational fidelity and interaction. 360° video production followed the methodology of filmmaking production, while AR requires the same videos to be converted into a compatible format. Lastly, the non-digital game was based on the Montessori method. Academia can contribute to the design of up-to-date practical guides for developing digital materials and drawing up training programs for teachers to address the challenges of diversity in classrooms and gain the expertise needed to be the levers of schools’ digital transformation.