Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Spatial patterns of malaria incidence in India: 1995–2013

  • Published:
GeoJournal Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Malaria is a major health problem in India, endemic for both Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) and Plasmodium vivax (Pv). Approximately 95% of the population reside in malaria endemic areas. Therefore, in this study long-term spatial patterns of district level annual malaria incidence data from 1995 to 2013 for both parasites have been analyzed. Broadly, three regions of higher average annual malaria incidence were identified from the analysis. These include south central, northwest, and northeast India for both parasites. Specifically, Pf cases were more widespread in the east and northeast, while Pv cases were more widespread in the northwest and districts adjacent to those for Pf cases in south central and northeast India. A majority of the districts experienced negative trends in the long-term incidence of malaria, with most of the positive trends spread across districts in northern India. In addition, the average number of deaths were mostly below 15 per year, except in Odisha and Chhattisgarh in South Central India. These lower rates from malaria may be a result of underestimation. Furthermore, the annual blood slide examination rates were above 10% for most of the country, except the northern Gangetic plains.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Availability of data and material

The data are available from the National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP), India.

Code availability

Not applicable.

References

  • Akhtar, R., Learmonth, A., & Keynes, M. (1977). The resurgence of Malaria in India 1965–76. GeoJournal, 1, 69–80. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00188888

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akhtar, R., Dutt, A. K., & Wadhwa, V. (2019). Health planning and the resurgence of malaria in urban India. In Regional development and planning for the 21st Century 151–168. Routledge.

  • Anvikar, A. R., Shah, N., Dhariwal, A. C., Sonal, G. S., Pradhan, M. M., Ghosh, S. K., & Valecha, N. (2016). Epidemiology of Plasmodium vivax malaria in India. American Journal Tropical Medicine Hygiene, 95, 108–120.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bousema, T., Drakeley, C., Gesase, S., Hashim, R., Magesa, S., Mosha, F., Otieno, S., Carneiro, I., Cox, J., Msuya, E., Kleinschmidt, I., Maxwell, C., Greenwood, B., Riley, E., Sauerwein, R., Chandramohan, D., & Gosling, R. (2010). Identification of hot spots of malaria transmission for targeted malaria control. The Journal of Infectious Diseases, 201(11), 1764–1774.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cator, L. J., Thomas, S., Paaijmans, K. P., Ravishankaran, S., Justin, J. A., Mathai, M. T., Read, A. F., Thomas, M. B., & Eapen, A. (2013). Characterizing microclimate in urban malaria transmission settings: A case study from Chennai, India. Malaria Journal, 12, 84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Choudhury, D. S. (1985). Malaria in India: Past, present and future. Indian Journal of Pediatrics, 52, 243–248.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohen, A. A., Dhingra, N., Jotkar, R. M., Rodriguez, P. S., Sharma, V. P., & Jha, P. (2010). The Summary Index of Malaria Surveillance (SIMS): A stable index of malaria within India. Population Health Metrics, 8, 1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coulibaly, D., Rebaudet, S., Travassos, M., Tolo, Y., Laurens, M., Kone, A. K., Traore, K., Guindo, A., Diarra, I., Niangaly, A., & Daou, M. (2013). Spatio-Temporal analysis of malaria within a transmission season in Bandiagara, Mali. Malaria Journal, 12, 1–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Das, A., Anvikar, A. R., Cator, L. J., Dhiman, R. C., Eapen, A., Mishra, N., Nagpal, B. N., Nanda, N., Raghavendra, K., Read, A. F., Sharma, S. K., Singh, O. P., Singh, V., Sinnis, P., Srivastava, H. C., Sullivan, S. A., Sutton, P. L., Thomas, M. B., Carlton, J. M., & Valecha, N. (2012). Malaria in India: The center for the study of complex malaria in India. Acta Tropica, 121, 267–273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actatropica.2011.11.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dash, A. P., Valecha, N., Anvikar, A. R., & Kumar, A. (2008). Malaria in India: Challenges and opportunities. Journal of Bioscience, 33, 583–592.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • DePina, A. J., Andrade, A. J. B., Dia, A. K., Moreira, A. L., Furtado, U. D., Baptista, H., Faye, O., & Seck, I. (2019). Spatiotemporal characterisation and risk factor analysis of malaria outbreak in Cabo Verde in 2017. Tropical Medicine and Health, 47(1), 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Devi, N. P., & Jauhari, R. K. (2008). Reappraisal on anopheline mosquitoes of Garhwal region, Uttarakhand, India. Journal of Vector Borne Disease, 45, 112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dhingra, N., Jha, P., Sharma, V. P., Cohen, A. A., Jotkar, R. M., Rodriguez, P. S., Bassani, D. G., Suraweera, W., Laxminarayan, R., Peto, R., Million Death Study Collaborators. (2010). Adult and child malaria mortality in India: a nationally representative mortality survey. Lancet, 376, 1768–1774. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60831-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ESRI. (2020). Optimized outlier analysis. Accessed on June 17, 2020: https://desktop.arcgis.com/en/arcmap/latest/tools/spatial-statistics-toolbox/optimizedoutlieranalysis.htm.

  • Ferrão, J. L., Mendes, J. M., Painho, M., & Zacarias, S. (2017). Malaria mortality characterization and the relationship between malaria mortality and climate in Chimoio, Mozambique. Malaria Journal, 16, 212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garg, A., Dhiman, R. C., Bhattacharya, S., & Shukla, P. R. (2009). Development, malaria and adaptation to climate change: A case study from India. Environmental Management, 43, 779–789.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gemperli, A., Sogoba, N., Fondjo, E., Mabaso, M., Bagayoko, M., Briët, O. J., Anderegg, D., Liebe, J., Smith, T., & Vounatsou, P. (2006). Mapping malaria transmission in West and central Africa. Tropical Medicine & International Health, 11(7), 1032–1046.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hay, S. I., Omumbo, J. A., Craig, M. H., & Snow, R. W. (2000). Earth observation, geographic information systems and Plasmodium falciparum malaria in sub-Saharan Africa. Advances in Parasitology, 47, 173–215.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hay, S. I., Gething, P. W., & Snow, R. W. (2010). India’s invisible malaria burden. Lancet, 376, 1716–1717. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61084-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hay, S. I., Packer, M. J., & Rogers, D. J. (1997). The impact of remote sensing on the study and control of invertebrate intermediate host and vectors for disease. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 18, 2899–2930.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hay, S. I., Tucker, C. J., Rogers, D. J., & Packer, M. J. (1996). Remotely sensed surrogates of meteorological data for the study of the distribution and abundance of arthropod vectors of disease. Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology, 90(1), 1–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kochar, D. K., Sirohi, P., Kochar, S. K., Budania, M. P., & Lakhotia, J. P. (2007). Dynamics of malaria in Bikaner, Rajasthan, India (1975–2006). Journal of Vector Borne Diseases., 44, 281–284.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar, A., Valecha, N., Jain, T., & Dash, A. P. (2007). Burden of Malaria in India: Retrospective and Prospective View. American Journal Tropical Medicine Hygiene, 77, 69–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kursah, M.B. (2017). Modelling malaria susceptibility using geographic information system. GeoJournal, 82, 1101–1111.

  • Louderback, E. R., & Sen Roy, S. (2018). Integrating social disorganization and routine activity theories and testing the effectiveness of Neighbourhood crime watch programs: Case study of Miami-Dade County, 2007–2015. British Journal of Criminology, 58, 968–992.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mishra, N., Singh, J. P., Srivastava, B., Arora, U., Shah, N. K., Ghosh, S. K., Bhatt, R. M., Sharma, S. K., Das, M. K., Kumar, A., Anvikar, A. R., Kaitholia, K., Gupta, R., Sonal, G. S., Dhariwal, A. C., & Valecha, N. (2012). Monitoring antimalarial drug resistance in India via sentinel sites: Outcomes and risk factors for treatment failure, 2009–2010. Bulletin of the World Health Organization, 90, 895–904.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mlacha, Y. P., Chaki, P. P., Mwakalinga, V. M., Govella, N. J., Limwagu, A. J., Paliga, J. M., Msellemu, D. F., Mageni, Z. D., Terlouw, D. J., Killeen, G. F., & Dongus, S. (2017). Fine scale mapping of malaria infection clusters by using routinely collected health facility data in urban Dar ES Salaam, Tanzania. Geospatial Health, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.4081/gh.2017.494.

  • NVBDCP. (2022). Malaria Surveillance. Accessed on January 20, 2022. https://nvbdcp.gov.in/index1.php?lang=1&level=1&sublinkid=5851&lid=3686.

  • Odhiambo, J. N., Kalinda, C., Macharia, P. M., Snow, R. W., & Sartorius, B. (2020). Spatial and spatio-temporal methods for mapping malaria risk: a systematic review. BMJ Global Health, 5(10) e002919.

  • Perlman, J., & Sen Roy, S. (2021). Analysis of human movement in the Miami metropolitan area utilizing uber movement data. Cities. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cities.2021.103376

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rogers, D. J., Randolph, S. E., Snow, R. W., & Hay, S. I. (2002). Satellite imagery in the study and forecast of malaria. Nature, 415, 710–715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shah, I. (2016). Chloroquine resistant vivax malaria in an infant: A report from India. Journal of Vector Borne Diseases, 45, 176–177.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharma, D. (2004). Thar Desert: Sitting on the tip of a malarial iceberg. Lancet Infectious Disease, 4, 322.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma, R. K., Thakor, H. G., Saha, K. B., Sonal, G. S., Dhariwal, A. C., & Singh, N. (2015). Malaria situation in India with special reference to tribal areas. Indian Journal of Medical Research, 141, 537.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharma, V. P. (1996). Re-emergence of malaria in India. Indian Journal Medical Research, 103, 26–45.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N., Kataria, O. M., & Singh, M. P. (2004a). The changing dynamics of Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum in central India: Trends over a 27-year period (1975–2002). Vector-Borne & Zoonotic Diseases, 4, 239–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Singh, N., Nagpal, A. C., Saxena, A., & Singh, M. P. (2004b). Changing scenario of malaria in central India, the replacement of Plasmodium vivax by Plasmodium falciparum (1986–2000). Tropical Medicine & International Health, 9, 364–371.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Srivastava, H. C., Yadav, R. S., Joshi, H., Valecha, N., Mallick, P. K., Prajapati, S. K., & Dash, A. P. (2008). Therapeutic responses of Plasmodium vivax and P. falciparum to chloroquine, in an area of western India where P. vivax predominates. Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology, 102, 471–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ssempiira, J., Nambuusi, B., Kissa, J., Agaba, B., Makumbi, F., Kasasa, S., & Vounatsou, P. (2017). The contribution of malaria control interventions on spatio-temporal changes of parasitaemia risk in Uganda during 2009–2014. Parasites & Vectors, 10(1), 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tatem, A. J., Baylis, M., Mellor, P. S., Purse, B. V., Capela, R., Pena, I., & Rogers, D. J. (2003). Prediction of bluetongue vector distribution in Europe and north Africa using satellite imagery. Veterinary Microbiology, 97(1–2), 13–29.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wangdi, K., Gatton, M. L., Kelly, G. C., Banwell, C., Dev, V., & Clements, A. C. (2016). Malaria elimination in India and regional implications. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 16(10), 214-e224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2017). World Malaria Report. WHO: Geneva. Accessed June 29, 2020. http://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world-malaria-report-2017/en/.

  • WHO. (2019). World malaria report 2019. Accessed on July 15, 2020 https://www.who.int/malaria/publications/world-malaria-report-2019/en/.

  • Yadav, R. S., Bhatt, R. M., Kohli, V. K., & Sharma, V. P. (2003). The burden of malaria in Ahmedabad city, India: A retrospective analysis of reported cases and deaths. Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology, 97, 793–802.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yadav, S. P., Sharma, R. C., & Joshi, V. (2005). Study of social determinants of malaria in desert part of Rajasthan, India. Journal of Vector Borne Diseases, 42, 141–146.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeshiwondim, A. K., Gopal, S., Hailemariam, A. T., Dengela, D. O., & Patel, H. P. (2009). Spatial analysis of malaria incidence at the village level in areas with unstable transmission in Ethiopia. International Journal of Health Geographics, 8, 1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

Not applicable.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Geography & Sustainable Development, University of Miami, Coral Gables, FL, USA

    Shouraseni Sen Roy

Authors
  1. Shouraseni Sen Roy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shouraseni Sen Roy.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The author has no conflicts of interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

Ethical standards

The data were collected by the National Vector Borne Disease Control Programme (NVBDCP), Government of India, for malaria surveillance and management, therefore no ethical approval is required.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Roy, S.S. Spatial patterns of malaria incidence in India: 1995–2013. GeoJournal 88, 1189–1199 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-022-10624-5

Download citation

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-022-10624-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation