Congressional districts: How “equal” are they?

Rossiter, Kalyn M.; Wong, David W. S.

doi:10.1007/s10708-018-09963-z

Congressional districts: How “equal” are they?

Published: 05 January 2019

Volume 85, pages 303–327, (2020)
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Abstract

Congressional redistricting is the process of delineating boundaries for districts in which voters elect members to the United States (U.S.) House of Representatives. Currently, state legislative bodies and committees may consider up to eight criteria when determining the boundaries of districts and this paper focuses on one of those criteria, equal population. Congressional districts (CDs) are drawn to provide quality representation for a large population and are often redrawn due to changes in population reflected by the decennial census. The U.S. Supreme Court recently decided that equal population refers to the total population of a state, rather than any subgroups (e.g. registered voters, voting eligible population) but did not dictate that states could not evenly distribute any subgroups as well. This paper discusses how eligible voters may be defined and their distributions in each state for the 113th Congress. States with a large proportion of children or prisoners were expected to have CDs with eligible voting populations deviated from the equal population counts, but the results show that populations of children and prisoners were not significant factors related to the deviations from equal population counts at the state level. However, the changes in population between 2000 and 2010, and the non-citizen and Hispanic populations were strongly and significantly associated with the deviations from the ideals.

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Notes

http://www.ncsl.org/.
The 2012 1-year estimates were used, rather than the 2010 1-year estimates, because it is the first set of data available for the 113th CDs. The CDs were published by the Census Bureau in 2012, therefore, 2012 is the first year ACS data was available as they do not retabulate ACS data for previous years.
Whether two ACS estimates with overlapping MOEs can be regarded as statistically different is not a straight forward matter. Please refer to Sun and Wong (2010) for a detailed discussion.
The state of Florida has address-level data for released felons but using this dataset proved problematic for this study. The list of addresses was only available for select felons (about 350,000 addresses) dating back to 1997. After removing the incomplete addresses, addresses with too data entry errors making them unusable, addresses for the deceased, and addresses for those who did not return to a home in FL, the list was reduced (about 150,000 address). Uggen et al. (2010) estimates 1,300,000 disenfranchised people and we decided to use our estimation method described in this paper to determine how the 1.3 million people were distributed among the CDs as a more accurate measure.
We also tested the spatial lag dependency of the dependent variable and found no significant spatial autocorrelation present.

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Authors and Affiliations

Department of History, Political Science, and Geography, Ohio Northern University, 525 S. Main Street, Ada, OH, 45810, USA
Kalyn M. Rossiter
Department of Geography and Geoinformation Science, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, 22030, USA
David W. S. Wong

Authors

Kalyn M. Rossiter
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David W. S. Wong
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Correspondence to Kalyn M. Rossiter.

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Appendices

Appendix 1

See Table 3.

Table 3 Estimated number of ex-felons in each 113th congressional district in Florida

Full size table

Appendix 2

CD	State	Total population	Percent from ideal total population	Total voting eligible population	Percent from ideal voting eligible population	Margin of error (U.S. citizen)
0101	Alabama	682,820	100.00015	502,253	100.09666	2285
0102	Alabama	682,820	100.00015	498,389	99.32658	2131
0103	Alabama	682,819	100.00000	505,849	100.81332	2261
0104	Alabama	682,819	100.00000	498,071	99.26321	2511
0105	Alabama	682,819	100.00000	503,510	100.34717	2294
0106	Alabama	682,819	100.00000	495,701	98.79088	2982
0107	Alabama	682,820	100.00015	508,729	101.38729	2180
0401	Arizona	710,224	100.00000	481,398	90.96317	3535
0402	Arizona	710,224	100.00000	512,088	96.76223	4637
0403	Arizona	710,224	100.00000	398,120	75.22727	6231
0404	Arizona	710,224	100.00000	500,668	94.60435	5198
0405	Arizona	710,224	100.00000	478,954	90.50136	3788
0406	Arizona	710,224	100.00000	506,149	95.64002	5255
0407	Arizona	710,224	100.00000	326,840	61.75846	8546
0408	Arizona	710,225	100.00014	499,104	94.30883	3777
0409	Arizona	710,224	100.00000	483,305	91.32351	6089
0501	Arkansas	728,765	99.97051	530,242	101.16072	1468
0502	Arkansas	729,192	100.02908	532,326	101.55831	2319
0503	Arkansas	728,959	99.99712	496,664	94.75464	4134
0504	Arkansas	729,002	100.00302	537,399	102.52615	2021
0601	California	702,905	100.00000	520,549	121.15652	2658
0602	California	702,905	100.00000	500,067	116.38939	4488
0603	California	702,906	100.00014	447,488	104.15175	5066
0604	California	702,906	100.00014	510,064	118.71616	3397
0605	California	702,905	100.00000	479,354	111.56849	5860
0606	California	702,905	100.00000	442,081	102.89329	5206
0607	California	702,904	99.99986	474,158	110.35913	5860
0608	California	702,905	100.00000	452,114	105.22844	6872
0609	California	702,904	99.99986	411,077	95.67718	7402
0610	California	702,905	100.00000	423,404	98.54626	5888
0611	California	702,906	100.00014	449,988	104.73362	6668
0612	California	702,905	100.00000	517,453	120.43594	5987
0613	California	702,906	100.00014	464,442	108.09775	5621
0614	California	702,905	100.00000	455,058	105.91365	7092
0615	California	702,904	99.99986	421,327	98.06284	6762
0616	California	702,904	99.99986	359,845	83.75305	7034
0617	California	702,904	99.99986	396,228	92.22111	8881
0618	California	702,906	100.00014	459,414	106.92750	7136
0619	California	702,904	99.99986	404,261	94.09077	7260
0620	California	702,906	100.00014	393,510	91.58850	7021
0621	California	702,904	99.99986	282,938	65.85314	7187
0622	California	702,905	100.00000	425,332	98.99500	6110
0623	California	702,904	99.99986	431,440	100.41662	5241
0624	California	702,904	99.99986	461,427	107.39602	5577
0625	California	702,904	99.99986	433,694	100.94123	6368
0626	California	702,905	100.00000	433,569	100.91214	6762
0627	California	702,905	100.00000	463,849	107.95973	6841
0628	California	702,904	99.99986	472,900	110.06633	7848
0629	California	702,905	100.00000	339,504	79.01874	8745
0630	California	702,904	99.99986	459,971	107.05714	7675
0631	California	702,905	100.00000	419,313	97.59409	6484
0632	California	702,905	100.00000	409,397	95.28616	7915
0633	California	702,904	99.99986	511,869	119.13627	5642
0634	California	702,904	99.99986	314,253	73.14163	9412
0635	California	702,905	100.00000	360,629	83.93553	8322
0636	California	702,905	100.00000	421,848	98.18410	5398
0637	California	702,904	99.99986	423,485	98.56511	9134
0638	California	702,905	100.00000	436,665	101.63272	5812
0639	California	702,905	100.00000	456,540	106.25858	7004
0640	California	702,904	99.99986	285,116	66.36006	8600
0641	California	702,904	99.99986	399,251	92.92471	6158
0642	California	702,906	100.00014	428,190	99.66019	6189
0643	California	702,904	99.99986	399,050	92.87792	7363
0644	California	702,904	99.99986	347,986	80.99290	6521
0645	California	702,906	100.00014	470,664	109.54591	6434
0646	California	702,906	100.00014	321,004	74.71291	9075
0647	California	702,905	100.00000	449,053	104.51600	6664
0648	California	702,906	100.00014	490,844	114.24276	5390
0649	California	702,906	100.00014	472,790	110.04073	6332
0650	California	702,905	100.00000	442,171	102.91423	6265
0651	California	702,906	100.00014	348,437	81.09787	8865
0652	California	702,904	99.99986	500,351	116.45549	7266
0653	California	702,904	99.99986	476,031	110.79507	6856
0801	Colorado	718,457	100.00014	495,667	99.36034	6927
0802	Colorado	718,457	100.00014	537,761	107.79841	3050
0803	Colorado	718,457	100.00014	519,661	104.17012	2922
0804	Colorado	718,456	100.00000	481,354	96.49119	3984
0805	Colorado	718,457	100.00014	505,160	101.26329	3919
0806	Colorado	718,456	100.00000	459,335	92.07730	5651
0807	Colorado	718,456	100.00000	493,071	98.83995	4783
0901	Connecticut	714,820	100.00014	506,253	101.14218	4865
0902	Connecticut	714,819	100.00000	527,815	105.44996	2727
0903	Connecticut	714,819	100.00000	522,375	104.36312	4717
0904	Connecticut	714,819	100.00000	446,922	89.28868	7279
0905	Connecticut	714,820	100.00014	499,313	99.75566	5323
1201	Florida	696,345	100.00014	475,350	98.63883	2122
1202	Florida	696,345	100.00014	422,493	87.67060	3101
1203	Florida	696,345	100.00014	464,308	96.34750	3919
1204	Florida	696,345	100.00014	469,148	97.35180	5254
1205	Florida	696,345	100.00014	307,045	63.71420	6030
1206	Florida	696,345	100.00014	509,288	105.68118	3386
1207	Florida	696,345	100.00014	487,210	101.09986	4179
1208	Florida	696,344	100.00000	506,068	105.01289	3912
1209	Florida	696,345	100.00014	410,036	85.08570	8485
1210	Florida	696,345	100.00014	460,956	95.65198	4979
1211	Florida	696,345	100.00014	517,048	107.29131	2829
1212	Florida	696,344	100.00000	509,138	105.65003	4411
1213	Florida	696,345	100.00014	523,609	108.65277	4661
1214	Florida	696,345	100.00014	391,587	81.25735	6800
1215	Florida	696,345	100.00014	448,702	93.10915	4566
1216	Florida	696,345	100.00014	506,594	105.12217	4401
1217	Florida	696,344	100.00000	470,111	97.55160	4417
1218	Florida	696,344	100.00000	480,682	99.74521	6286
1219	Florida	696,345	100.00014	483,211	100.26991	4942
1220	Florida	696,345	100.00014	252,191	52.33154	10,459
1221	Florida	696,345	100.00014	436,128	90.49983	7369
1222	Florida	696,345	100.00014	448,078	92.97955	8641
1223	Florida	696,345	100.00014	409,298	84.93237	7086
1224	Florida	696,345	100.00014	222,022	46.07136	8423
1225	Florida	696,344	100.00000	344,238	71.43204	10,537
1226	Florida	696,345	100.00014	370,713	76.92586	11,289
1227	Florida	696,345	100.00014	362,949	75.31467	10,132
1301	Georgia	691,974	99.99986	489,463	104.62121	2728
1302	Georgia	691,976	100.00014	481,739	102.97023	2177
1303	Georgia	691,974	99.99986	488,948	104.51113	2798
1304	Georgia	691,976	100.00014	439,041	93.84366	7495
1305	Georgia	691,976	100.00014	492,360	105.24043	6153
1306	Georgia	691,975	100.00000	434,135	92.79502	7983
1307	Georgia	691,975	100.00000	397,601	84.98599	8522
1308	Georgia	691,976	100.00014	483,312	103.30645	3055
1309	Georgia	691,975	100.00000	478,227	102.21955	3538
1310	Georgia	691,976	100.00014	492,258	105.21863	5633
1311	Georgia	691,975	100.00000	460,079	98.34047	6051
1312	Georgia	691,975	100.00000	486,915	104.07658	3145
1313	Georgia	691,976	100.00014	451,743	96.55867	7965
1314	Georgia	691,974	99.99986	473,982	101.31219	2756
1501	Hawaii	680,496	100.05087	475,604	99.61920	5559
1502	Hawaii	679,805	99.94928	479,241	100.38100	4761
1601	Idaho	784,132	100.04351	543,594	101.12925	3345
1602	Idaho	783,450	99.95649	531,454	98.87075	4212
1701	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	508,960	104.69972	3769
1702	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	499,130	102.67756	3184
1703	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	447,747	92.10741	5561
1704	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	350,469	72.09605	8059
1705	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	516,306	106.21089	6672
1706	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	491,696	101.14829	5968
1707	Illinois	712,812	100.00000	492,426	101.29846	5535
1708	Illinois	712,812	100.00000	435,827	89.65531	7885
1709	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	485,810	99.93746	8361
1710	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	444,161	91.36972	5978
1711	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	433,937	89.26651	5574
1712	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	529,535	108.93227	1514
1713	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	537,959	110.66519	2181
1714	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	478,608	98.45592	4934
1715	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	531,095	109.25318	1373
1716	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	521,717	107.32400	2599
1717	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	518,884	106.74122	3202
1718	Illinois	712,813	100.00014	525,800	108.16393	2029
1801	Indiana	720,422	100.00000	515,947	100.00213	3448
1802	Indiana	720,423	100.00014	505,016	97.88346	2719
1803	Indiana	720,423	100.00014	508,889	98.63413	2922
1804	Indiana	720,422	100.00000	515,200	99.85735	2849
1805	Indiana	720,423	100.00014	510,356	98.91847	2831
1806	Indiana	720,422	100.00000	533,301	103.36573	1682
1807	Indiana	720,423	100.00014	484,467	93.90060	4777
1808	Indiana	720,422	100.00000	534,286	103.55664	1129
1809	Indiana	720,422	100.00000	535,967	103.88246	2064
1901	Iowa	761,548	99.99462	563,427	101.41117	2125
1902	Iowa	761,624	100.00460	561,414	101.04885	2560
1903	Iowa	761,612	100.00302	536,960	96.64737	2814
1904	Iowa	761,571	99.99764	560,546	100.89261	2156
2001	Kansas	713,278	99.99972	496,097	99.64088	2552
2002	Kansas	713,272	99.99888	522,351	104.91399	2597
2003	Kansas	713,287	100.00098	478,969	96.20073	3632
2004	Kansas	713281	100.00014	494,123	99.24440	3089
2101	Kentucky	723,178	99.99309	540,764	101.6051603	1343
2102	Kentucky	723,137	99.98742	531,337	99.83390359	1905
2103	Kentucky	723,171	99.99212	526,061	98.84258607	3833
2104	Kentucky	723450	100.03070	521,407	97.9681373	2297
2105	Kentucky	723,228	100.00000	544,156	102.2424895	736
2106	Kentucky	723,203	99.99654	529,600	99.5075354	2446
2201	Louisiana	755,445	99.98451	555,238	102.29070	3795
2202	Louisiana	755,538	99.99682	531,111	97.84582	3245
2203	Louisiana	755,596	100.00450	545,656	100.52542	2656
2204	Louisiana	755,605	100.00569	542,171	99.88338	2248
2205	Louisiana	755,581	100.00251	532,473	98.09673	1312
2206	Louisiana	755,607	100.00596	550,176	101.35813	2983
2301	Maine	664,180	100.00000	517,444	99.82560	2534
2302	Maine	664,181	100.00015	519,252	100.17440	1465
2401	Maryland	722,650	99.97506	534,470	92.60193	2718
2402	Maryland	723,447	99.77428	499,844	93.11080	5701
2403	Maryland	720,094	100.93585	510,552	93.88862	5471
2404	Maryland	720,065	100.24290	458,355	101.53892	5441
2405	Maryland	720,472	99.83068	504,703	102.52598	4895
2406	Maryland	728,448	99.77830	462,184	103.71416	7438
2407	Maryland	716,862	99.33046	512,189	104.04670	5144
2408	Maryland	721,514	100.13247	455,850	108.57289	6895
2501	Massachusetts	727,515	100.00014	541,396	104.78037	3646
2502	Massachusetts	727,514	100.00000	522,493	101.12194	4157
2503	Massachusetts	727,514	100.00000	490,647	94.95854	5853
2504	Massachusetts	727,514	100.00000	518,963	100.43875	3797
2505	Massachusetts	727,515	100.00014	499,959	96.76076	6653
2506	Massachusetts	727,515	100.00014	524,398	101.49063	3672
2507	Massachusetts	727,514	100.00000	480,141	92.92524	7042
2508	Massachusetts	727,514	100.00000	528,458	102.27639	4599
2509	Massachusetts	727,514	100.00000	543,811	105.24777	2853
2601	Michigan	705,974	100.00000	544,259	105.65018	1060
2602	Michigan	705,975	100.00014	507,131	98.44298	3134
2603	Michigan	705,974	100.00000	497,826	96.63672	3134
2604	Michigan	705,974	100.00000	533,266	103.51624	1626
2605	Michigan	705,975	100.00014	529,783	102.84013	1972
2606	Michigan	705,974	100.00000	517,747	100.50373	2583
2607	Michigan	705,974	100.00000	517,133	100.38455	1502
2608	Michigan	705,975	100.00014	515,042	99.97865	2490
2609	Michigan	705,975	100.00014	522,653	101.45608	3701
2610	Michigan	705,974	100.00000	516,566	100.27448	2256
2611	Michigan	705,974	100.00000	498,815	96.82870	4113
2612	Michigan	705,974	100.00000	511,043	99.20237	3045
2613	Michigan	705,974	100.00000	504,017	97.83850	3030
2614	Michigan	705,974	100.00000	496,845	96.44629	3769
2701	Minnesota	662,991	100.00000	483,443	101.07506	3002
2702	Minnesota	662,991	100.00000	463,870	96.98286	2882
2703	Minnesota	662,990	99.99985	469,504	98.16078	4323
2704	Minnesota	662,990	99.99985	464,726	97.16183	3880
2705	Minnesota	662,991	100.00000	471,191	98.51349	4831
2706	Minnesota	662,990	99.99985	470,743	98.41982	2485
2707	Minnesota	662,991	100.00000	496,553	103.81601	1211
2708	Minnesota	662,991	100.00000	506,381	105.87078	863
2801	Mississippi	741,837	100.00175	540,962	101.04527	1568
2802	Mississippi	741,862	100.00512	523,251	97.73706	2001
2803	Mississippi	741,822	99.99973	536,918	100.28990	1833
2804	Mississippi	741,776	99.99353	540,334	100.92796	2179
2901	Missouri	748,616	100.00000	553,366	100.40790	3392
2902	Missouri	748,616	100.00000	553,188	100.37560	4305
2903	Missouri	748,615	99.99987	548,334	99.49485	1711
2904	Missouri	748,616	100.00000	553,837	100.49336	2386
2905	Missouri	748,616	100.00000	544,094	98.72550	3460
2906	Missouri	748,616	100.00000	543,210	98.56510	1995
2907	Missouri	748,616	100.00000	556,412	100.96059	2001
2908	Missouri	748,616	100.00000	556,499	100.97638	838
3101	Nebraska	608,780	100.00000	434,853	101.54209	1983
3102	Nebraska	608,781	100.00016	412,059	96.21949	3310
3103	Nebraska	608,780	100.00000	437,834	102.23818	2315
3201	Nevada	675,138	100.00000	390,184	88.74837	7256
3202	Nevada	675,138	100.00000	465,559	105.89262	5059
3203	Nevada	675,138	100.00000	478,270	108.78377	4964
3204	Nevada	675,137	99.99985	424,593	96.57479	4975
3301	New Hampshire	658,233	99.99970	496,256	100.13903	2320
3302	New Hampshire	658,237	100.00030	494,878	99.86097	2895
3401	New Jersey	732,658	100.00002	524,825	109.09359	3946
3402	New Jersey	732,658	100.00002	509,924	105.99617	5323
3403	New Jersey	732,658	100.00002	541,394	112.53773	3211
3404	New Jersey	732,657	99.99989	509,237	105.85337	4285
3405	New Jersey	732,658	100.00002	502,582	104.47002	5882
3406	New Jersey	732,657	99.99989	455,792	94.74394	7709
3407	New Jersey	732,658	100.00002	493,428	102.56720	5522
3408	New Jersey	732,658	100.00002	377,221	78.41165	8630
3409	New Jersey	732,658	100.00002	427,677	88.89977	8619
3410	New Jersey	732,658	100.00002	454,275	94.42860	6100
3411	New Jersey	732,658	100.00002	517,385	107.54706	4676
3412	New Jersey	732,658	100.00002	459,193	95.45089	6781
3501	New Mexico	686,393	100.00000	471,826	101.32567	6098
3502	New Mexico	686,393	100.00000	445,745	95.72471	4316
3503	New Mexico	686,393	100.00000	479,388	102.94962	3268
3601	New York	717,707	99.99993	498,719	104.59117	5690
3602	New York	717,708	100.00007	476,378	99.90583	6764
3603	New York	717,707	99.99993	502,833	105.45396	6091
3604	New York	717,708	100.00007	478,072	100.26109	4926
3605	New York	717,708	100.00007	418,650	87.79913	8458
3606	New York	717,707	99.99993	427,100	89.57126	9541
3607	New York	717,708	100.00007	374,580	78.55679	8825
3608	New York	717,708	100.00007	461,405	96.76570	6217
3609	New York	717,708	100.00007	423,203	88.75399	7569
3610	New York	717,707	99.99993	472,154	99.01997	7886
3611	New York	717,708	100.00007	483,994	101.50305	4854
3612	New York	717,707	99.99993	531,784	111.52556	7233
3613	New York	717,707	99.99993	407,570	85.47544	11,060
3614	New York	717,708	100.00007	374,118	78.45990	10,438
3615	New York	717,708	100.00007	343,576	72.05464	9005
3616	New York	717,707	99.99993	449,069	94.17859	7675
3617	New York	717,708	100.00007	444,990	93.32315	5927
3618	New York	717,707	99.99993	486,898	102.11208	3942
3619	New York	717,708	100.00007	540,154	113.28091	2127
3620	New York	717,708	100.00007	538,930	113.02421	3127
3621	New York	717,707	99.99993	530,405	111.23635	1919
3622	New York	717,708	100.00007	538,808	112.99863	2142
3623	New York	717,707	99.99993	538,144	112.85937	1789
3624	New York	717,707	99.99993	530,256	111.20510	2174
3625	New York	717,707	99.99993	524,810	110.06297	3923
3626	New York	717,707	99.99993	541,617	113.58773	2381
3627	New York	717,707	99.99993	536,113	112.43343	1706
3701	North Carolina	733,499	100.00000	515,034	99.49637	4127
3702	North Carolina	733,499	100.00000	497,460	96.10135	5342
3703	North Carolina	733,499	100.00000	545,202	105.32435	3024
3704	North Carolina	733,498	99.99986	500,909	96.76764	5870
3705	North Carolina	733,499	100.00000	537,526	103.84147	3877
3706	North Carolina	733,499	100.00000	539,438	104.21083	4782
3707	North Carolina	733,498	99.99986	517,270	99.92833	4452
3708	North Carolina	733,499	100.00000	510,709	98.66085	3231
3709	North Carolina	733,498	99.99986	500,304	96.65077	4659
3710	North Carolina	733,499	100.00000	541,810	104.66907	2730
3711	North Carolina	733,499	100.00000	557,164	107.63521	3041
3712	North Carolina	733,499	100.00000	465,114	89.85262	8419
3713	North Carolina	733,498	99.99986	501,392	96.86095	4699
3901	Ohio	721,032	100.00000	514,349	96.66942	3710
3902	Ohio	721,031	99.99986	538,003	101.11508	2161
3903	Ohio	721,031	99.99986	494,923	93.01840	4875
3904	Ohio	721,032	100.00000	526,434	98.94074	1328
3905	Ohio	721,031	99.99986	540,788	101.63851	2110
3906	Ohio	721,032	100.00000	548,748	103.13455	1492
3907	Ohio	721,031	99.99986	538,559	101.21958	1139
3908	Ohio	721,032	100.00000	528,897	99.40365	2374
3909	Ohio	721,032	100.00000	535,985	100.73581	2082
3910	Ohio	721,032	100.00000	541,750	101.81931	2363
3911	Ohio	721,032	100.00000	530,706	99.74364	2107
3912	Ohio	721,031	99.99986	520,240	97.77661	3269
3913	Ohio	721,031	99.99986	547,590	102.91691	2144
3914	Ohio	721,032	100.00000	537,735	101.06471	2820
3915	Ohio	721,031	99.99986	523,345	98.36018	2782
3916	Ohio	721,031	99.99986	545,075	102.44423	2400
4001	Oklahoma	750,270	100.00000	523,644	98.67062	2191
4002	Oklahoma	750,270	100.00000	548,506	103.35539	906
4003	Oklahoma	750,270	100.00000	531,711	100.19069	2572
4004	Oklahoma	750,270	100.00000	542,624	102.24704	2434
4005	Oklahoma	750,271	100.00013	507,011	95.53645	3136
4101	Oregon	766,216	100.00013	515,926	94.60283	5269
4102	Oregon	766,215	100.00000	551,061	101.04536	3222
4103	Oregon	766,215	100.00000	544,658	99.87128	4537
4104	Oregon	766,214	99.99987	587,807	107.78330	2863
4105	Oregon	766,214	99.99987	527,350	96.69759	4348
4201	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	479,541	91.42207	5275
4202	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	528,478	100.75166	2881
4203	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	535,295	102.05129	1991
4204	Pennsylvania	705,687	99.99990	522,956	99.69892	2147
4205	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	539,643	102.88021	1847
4206	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	510,453	97.31528	3180
4207	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	515,323	98.24373	2581
4208	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	518,993	98.94339	3017
4209	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	545,648	104.02503	1304
4210	Pennsylvania	705,687	99.99990	533,722	101.75140	1760
4211	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	535,565	102.10276	2282
4212	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	548,089	104.49040	1091
4213	Pennsylvania	705,687	99.99990	487,905	93.01662	5514
4214	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	551,965	105.22934	2332
4215	Pennsylvania	705,687	99.99990	518,318	98.81471	3617
4216	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	496,869	94.72556	4082
4217	Pennsylvania	705,687	99.99990	528,831	100.81896	2944
4218	Pennsylvania	705,688	100.00004	544,041	103.71867	2513
4401	Rhode Island	526,283	99.99981	371,258	97.18923	4564
4402	Rhode Island	526,284	100.00000	392,731	102.81051	4160
4501	South Carolina	660,766	100.00000	485,457	100.71701	2293
4502	South Carolina	660,766	100.00000	484,806	100.58195	2574
4503	South Carolina	660,767	100.00015	488,369	101.32116	2533
4504	South Carolina	660,766	100.00000	467,620	97.01640	3170
4505	South Carolina	660,766	100.00000	481,033	99.79917	2824
4506	South Carolina	660,766	100.00000	477,804	99.12925	2768
4507	South Carolina	660,767	100.00015	488,919	101.43527	2784
4701	Tennessee	705,123	100.00000	539,497	104.85096	2380
4702	Tennessee	705,123	100.00000	531,182	103.23495	2506
4703	Tennessee	705,122	99.99986	533,895	103.76222	2328
4704	Tennessee	705,123	100.00000	509,322	98.98647	2616
4705	Tennessee	705,123	100.00000	498,078	96.80120	3763
4706	Tennessee	705,123	100.00000	520,053	101.07203	2152
4707	Tennessee	705,123	100.00000	504,271	98.00481	2064
4708	Tennessee	705,122	99.99986	513,193	99.73879	2146
4709	Tennessee	705,123	100.00000	481,340	93.54818	3472
4801	Texas	698,488	100.00000	478,507	111.92492	3124
4802	Texas	698,488	100.00000	426,414	99.74013	10,915
4803	Texas	698,488	100.00000	432,222	101.09865	5208
4804	Texas	698,488	100.00000	487,692	114.07333	3373
4805	Texas	698,488	100.00000	424,036	99.18391	6146
4806	Texas	698,498	100.00143	456,393	106.75235	5756
4807	Texas	698,488	100.00000	409,805	95.85521	11,919
4808	Texas	698,488	100.00000	434,128	101.54447	8025
4809	Texas	698,488	100.00000	360,896	84.41518	10,634
4810	Texas	698,487	99.99986	444,267	103.91603	7165
4811	Texas	698,488	100.00000	471,210	110.21812	3834
4812	Texas	698,488	100.00000	466,739	109.17233	6278
4813	Texas	698,488	100.00000	462,644	108.21449	3754
4814	Texas	698,472	99.99771	457,329	106.97129	3559
4815	Texas	698,488	100.00000	351,050	82.11216	8541
4816	Texas	698,488	100.00000	387,921	90.73645	6962
4817	Texas	698,487	99.99986	469,106	109.72598	4810
4818	Texas	698,488	100.00000	383,115	89.61230	11,267
4819	Texas	698,487	99.99986	470,861	110.13648	3635
4820	Texas	698,488	100.00000	440,000	102.91796	7266
4821	Texas	698,488	100.00000	515,596	120.60020	5092
4822	Texas	698,504	100.00229	418,055	97.78492	8171
4823	Texas	698,488	100.00000	396,929	92.84346	5510
4824	Texas	698,488	100.00000	432,884	101.25349	9516
4825	Texas	698,478	99.99857	476,710	111.50459	4601
4826	Texas	698,488	100.00000	446,423	104.42033	6544
4827	Texas	698,487	99.99986	480,203	112.32162	4372
4828	Texas	698,488	100.00000	364,544	85.26846	8924
4829	Texas	698,488	100.00000	306,171	71.61476	10,329
4830	Texas	698,487	99.99986	397,520	92.98170	6933
4831	Texas	698,487	99.99986	460,318	107.67043	5254
4832	Texas	698,488	100.00000	440,724	103.08730	7893
4833	Texas	698,488	100.00000	296,124	69.26472	10,061
4834	Texas	698,487	99.99986	370,028	86.55120	6615
4835	Texas	698,488	100.00000	411,083	96.15414	9102
4836	Texas	698,488	100.00000	463,239	108.35366	6508
4901	Utah	690,971	100.00000	445,110	101.87822	3504
4902	Utah	690,971	100.00000	444,606	101.76286	4996
4903	Utah	690,972	100.00014	441,076	100.95490	3295
4904	Utah	690,971	100.00000	416,824	95.40402	5599
5101	Virginia	727,366	100.00002	508,895	99.02793	3578
5102	Virginia	708,087	97.34950	521,487	101.47826	3889
5103	Virginia	746,645	102.65055	552,492	107.51165	2697
5104	Virginia	727,366	100.00002	514,175	100.05539	2866
5105	Virginia	727,365	99.99989	549,581	106.94518	2692
5106	Virginia	727,366	100.00002	547,423	106.52525	2526
5107	Virginia	727,366	100.00002	519,960	101.18112	2878
5108	Virginia	727,366	100.00002	472,775	91.99920	8480
5109	Virginia	727,366	100.00002	564,697	109.88667	2022
5110	Virginia	727,365	99.99989	459,644	89.44398	6276
5111	Virginia	727,366	100.00002	441,665	85.94537	8387
5301	Washington	672,444	99.99851	449,999	96.73466	5753
5302	Washington	672,454	100.00000	485,173	104.29589	4892
5303	Washington	672,448	99.99911	475,325	102.17890	3429
5304	Washington	672,456	100.00030	388,371	83.48671	5026
5305	Washington	672,455	100.00015	493,588	106.10483	3094
5306	Washington	672,448	99.99911	505,060	108.57092	2998
5307	Washington	672,457	100.00045	511,192	109.88910	5529
5308	Washington	672,463	100.00134	457,004	98.24050	4598
5309	Washington	672,460	100.00089	417,053	89.65238	7174
5310	Washington	672,455	100.00015	469,126	100.84632	3785
5401	West Virginia	615,991	99.72903	481,203	100.54962	1225
5402	West Virginia	620,862	100.51765	475,256	99.30697	1377
5403	West Virginia	616,141	99.75332	479,259	100.14341	533
5501	Wisconsin	710,874	100.00014	508,802	97.58344	2798
5502	Wisconsin	710,874	100.00014	517,432	99.23859	3386
5503	Wisconsin	710,873	100.00000	541,911	103.93343	1495
5504	Wisconsin	710,873	100.00000	486,030	93.21598	4178
5505	Wisconsin	710,873	100.00000	530,476	101.74031	2465
5506	Wisconsin	710,873	100.00000	528,020	101.26927	1971
5507	Wisconsin	710,873	100.00000	537,199	103.02972	1016
5508	Wisconsin	710,873	100.00000	521,348	99.98964	2169

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Rossiter, K.M., Wong, D.W.S. Congressional districts: How “equal” are they?. GeoJournal 85, 303–327 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-018-09963-z

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Published: 05 January 2019
Issue Date: April 2020
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10708-018-09963-z

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Congressional districts: How “equal” are they?

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Congressional districts: How “equal” are they?

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Federalism, Proportionality, and Popular Will in US Presidential Elections: Did Colorado Have the Right Idea?

The Federal Response and New Considerations for Election Administration

Gill v. Whitford on Partisan Gerrymandering

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