Abstract
Globally, cement is the highest utilized pozzolanic material in construction. Consequently, yearly ordinary Portland cement is manufactured in enormous amounts worldwide. Manufacturing of cement is a natural resource and energy consuming process which involves greenhouse gas CO2 release in the air in vast amount. The utilization of ordinary Portland cement in construction can be lessened by replacing it with some other by-product cementitious material having equal or higher mechanical strength and durability. This paper discusses the impact of cement manufacturing on the environment and gives the background to the requirements for the invention of alternate binders over conventional binders like cement. Many researchers attempted to produce an environmentally friendly binder, “Geopolymer”. This paper aims to present an overview of past and recent studies on the utilization of flyash and other waste materials in developing geopolymer as a sustainable construction material. Description of the production of geopolymer, the chemistry of geopolymerization, microstructural analysis, and its relationship with mechanical strength and durability of geopolymer are reviewed. Moreover, the influence of the inclusion of calcium-based waste material in geopolymerization is reviewed and reported. Many researchers reported higher strength of a flyash-based geopolymer composite than the conventional cement composite.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data Availability
Enquiries about data availability should be directed to the authors.
References
Assi L, Carter K, Deaver E, Anay R, Ziehl P (2018) Sustainable concrete: building a greener future. J Clean Prod 198:1641–1651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.07.123
ASTM D1557-12 (2013) Standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using modified effort (56, 000 ft-lbf / ft 3 (2, 700 kN-m / m 3)). ASTM Int. https://doi.org/10.1520/D1557-12.1
ASTM D698-7 (2007) ASTM D 698–07 standard test methods for laboratory compaction characteristics of soil using standard effort. ASTM Int 3:15
Azarsa P, Gupta R (2020) Durability and leach-ability evaluation of K-based geopolymer concrete in real environmental conditions. Case Stud Constr Mater 13:e00366. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00366
Barbosa VFF, MacKenzie KJD, Thaumaturgo C (2000) Synthesis and characterisation of materials based on inorganic polymers of alumina and silica: sodium polysialate polymers. Int J Inorg Mater 2:309–317. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1466-6049(00)00041-6
Bin Marsono AK, Balasbaneh AT (2015) Combinations of building construction material for residential building for the global warming mitigation for Malaysia. Constr Build Mater 85:100–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2015.03.083
Brew DRM, Mackenzie KJD (2007) Geopolymer synthesis using silica fume and sodium aluminate. J Mater Sci 42:3990–3993. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0376-1
Chen Z, Li JS, Zhan BJ, Sharma U, Poon CS (2018) Compressive strength and microstructural properties of dry-mixed geopolymer pastes synthesized from GGBS and sewage sludge ash. Constr Build Mater 182:597–607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.06.159
Chen J, Chen H, Xiao P, Zhang L (2004) A study on complex alkali-slag environmental concrete. In: International Workshop on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology
Cheng TW, Chiu JP (2003) Fire-resistant geopolymer produce by granulated blast furnace slag. Miner Eng 16:205–210. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0892-6875(03)00008-6
Cristelo N, Glendinning S, Miranda T, Oliveira D, Silva R (2012) Soil stabilisation using alkaline activation of fly ash for self compacting rammed earth construction. Constr Build Mater 36:727–735. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.06.037
da Bezerra ACS, França S, de Magalhães LF, de Carvalho MCR (2019) Alkaline activation of high-calcium ash and iron ore tailings and their recycling potential in building materials. Ambient Construído 19:99–112. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1678-86212019000300327
Das SK, Yudhbir (2005) Geotechnical characterization of some indian fly ashes. J Mater Civ Eng 17: 544–552. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0899-1561(2005)17:5(544)
Davidovits J (1991) Geopolymers: inorganic polymeric new materials. J Therm Anal 37:1633–1656. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01912193
Davidovits J (1994b) Geopolymers: man-made rock geosynthesis and the resulting development of very early high strength cement. Mater Educ 16:91–139
Davidovits J, Al Iaga F (1981) Fabrication of stone objects, by geopolymeric synthesis, in the Pre-Incan Huanka Civilization (Peru). In: 21st international symposium for archaeometry. Brookhaven National Laboratory, New York, USA, pp 21
Davidovits F, Naso A, Davidovits J (1999) The making of etruscian ceramic (Bucchero Nero) in Vii-Viii Century B.C. In: Géopolymère ’99 proceedings, 2nd international conference on geopolymers. Pp. 297–314
Davidovits J (1981) The need to create a new technical language for the transfer of basic scientific information. In: Transfer and exploitation of scientific and technical information. Commission of the European Communities, Luxembourg, France, pp 316–320
Davidovits J (1984) X-ray analysis and X-ray diffraction of casing stones from the pyramids of Egypt, and the limestone of the associated quarries. In: Science In Egyptology Symposia. Science In Egyptology Symposia, Florida, USA, pp 511–520
Davidovits J (1994a) Properties of geopolymer cements. In: Alkaline cements and concretes. Scientific Research Institute on Binders and Materials , Kiev State Technical University, Kiev, Ukraine, pp 131–149
Davidovits J (1999) Chemistry of geopolymeric systems, terminology. In: Second International Conference on Geopolymer. Geopolymer Institute, Saint-Quentin, France, pp 9–340
Davidovits J (2011) Geopolymer chemistry and applications, 5th edn. Institut Géopolymère, Saint-Quentin, France
Duxson P, Provis JL, Lukey GC, Mallicoat SW, Kriven WM, Van Deventer JSJ (2005) Understanding the relationship between geopolymer composition, microstructure and mechanical properties. Colloids Surfaces A Physicochem Eng Asp 269:47–58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2005.06.060
Duxson P, Fernández-Jiménez A, Provis JL, Lukey GC, Palomo A, Van Deventer JSJ (2007) Geopolymer technology: the current state of the art. J Mater Sci 42:2917–2933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0637-z
Duxson P, Mallicoat SW, Lukey GC, Kriven WM, Van Deventer JSJ (2007) The effect of alkali and Si/Al ratio on the development of mechanical properties of metakaolin-based geopolymers. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 292:8–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2006.05.044
Fernández-Jiménez A, Palomo A (2003) Characterisation of fly ashes. Potential reactivity as alkaline cements. Fuel 82:2259–2265. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0016-2361(03)00194-7
Gourley JT (2003) Geopolymers; opportunities for environmentally friendly construction materials. In: Materials 2003 conference: adaptive materials for a modern society, Institute of Materials Engineering Australia, Sydney
Guleria SP, Dutta RK (2013) Durability and leachate analysis of fly ash-lime-gypsum composite mixed with treated tire chips. J Geoengin 8:33–40. https://doi.org/10.6310/jog.2013.8(2).1
Guo X, Shi H, Dick WA (2010) Compressive strength and microstructural characteristics of class C fly ash geopolymer. Cem Concr Compos 32:142–147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2009.11.003
Horpibulsuk S, Suksiripattanapong C, Samingthong W, Rachan R, Arulrajah A (2016) Durability against wetting-drying cycles of water treatment sludge-fly ash geopolymer and water treatment sludge-cement and silty clay-cement systems. J Mater Civ Eng 28:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001351
Hoy M, Horpibulsuk S, Arulrajah A (2016) Strength development of Recycled Asphalt Pavement - Fly ash geopolymer as a road construction material. Constr Build Mater 117:209–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.136
Hoy M, Rachan R, Horpibulsuk S, Arulrajah A, Mirzababaei M (2017) Effect of wetting–drying cycles on compressive strength and microstructure of Recycled Asphalt Pavement – Fly ash geopolymer. Constr Build Mater 144:624–634. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.03.243
Jana D (2007) The Great Pyramid debate: Evidence from detailed petrographic examinations of casing stones from the great pyramid of khufu, a natural limestone from tura, and a man-made (Geopolymeric) limestone. In: international cement microscopy association - 29th international conference on cement microscopy 2007
Kua TA, Arulrajah A, Horpibulsuk S, Du YJ, Shen SL (2016) Strength assessment of spent coffee grounds-geopolymer cement utilizing slag and fly ash precursors. Constr Build Mater 115:565–575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.04.021
Kumar S, Kristály F, Mucsi G (2015) Geopolymerisation behaviour of size fractioned fly ash. Adv Powder Technol 26:24–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apt.2014.09.001
Lahoti M, Tan KH, Yang EH (2019) A critical review of geopolymer properties for structural fire-resistance applications. Constr Build Mater 221:514–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.06.076
Leelarungroj K, Likitlersuang S, Chompoorat T, Janjaroen D (2018) Leaching Mechanisms of Heavy Metals from Fly Ash Stabilised Soils. Waste Manag Res. 36:616–623. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734242X18775494
Malhotra VM (1999) Making concrete" greener" with fly ash. Concrete International 21:61–66
Malhotra VM (2002) Introduction: sustainable development and concrete technology. Concrete International 24:22
Malkawi AB, Nuruddin MF, Fauzi A, Almattarneh H, Mohammed BS (2016) Effects of alkaline solution on properties of the HCFA geopolymer mortars. Proced Eng 148:710–717. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.06.581
McCaffrey R (2002) Climate change and cement industry. In: Global cement and lime magazine(Environmental Special Issue). 9:15–19
McLellan BC, Williams RP, Lay J, Riessen AV, Corder GD (2011) Costs and carbon emissions for geopolymer pastes in comparison to ordinary portland cement. J Clean Prod 19:1080–1090. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2011.02.010
Mustafa Al Bakri AM, Abdulkareem OA, Kamarudin H, Nizar IK, Rafiza AR, Zarina Y, Alida A (2013) Microstructure studies on the effect of the alkaline activators of fly ash-based geopolymer at elevated heat treatment temperature. Appl Mech Mater 421:342–348. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.421.342
Nath SK, Maitra S, Mukherjee S, Kumar S (2016) Microstructural and morphological evolution of fly ash based geopolymers. Constr Build Mater 111:758–765. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.02.106
Pacheco-Torgal F, Castro-Gomes J, Jalali S (2008) Alkali-activated binders: a review. Part 1. Historical background, terminology, reaction mechanisms and hydration products. Constr Build Mater 22:1305–1314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2007.10.015
Palomo A, Grutzeck MW, Blanco MT (1999) Alkali-activated fly ashes: a cement for the future. Cem Concr Res 29:1323–1329
Parathi S, Nagarajan P, Pallikkara SA (2021) Ecofriendly geopolymer concrete: a comprehensive review. Clean Technol Environ Policy 23:1701–1713. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-021-02085-0
Poorveekan K, Ath KMS, Anburuvel A, Sathiparan N (2021) Investigation of the engineering properties of cementless stabilized earth blocks with alkali-activated eggshell and rice husk ash as a binder. Constr Build Mater 277:122371. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2021.122371
Pourabbas Bilondi M, Toufigh MM, Toufigh V (2018) Experimental investigation of using a recycled glass powder-based geopolymer to improve the mechanical behavior of clay soils. Constr Build Mater 170:302–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.03.049
Rahier H, Wastiels J, Biesemans M, Willlem R, Assche GV, Mele BV (2007) Reaction mechanism, kinetics and high temperature transformations of geopolymers. J Mater Sci 42:2982–2996. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0568-8
Ravikumar D, Peethamparan S, Neithalath N (2010) Structure and strength of NaOH activated concretes containing fly ash or GGBFS as the sole binder. Cem Concr Compos 32:399–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2010.03.007
Roy DM (1999) Alkali activated cements, opportunities and challenges. Cem Concr Res 29:249–254
Saeli M, Senff L, Tobaldi DM, Carvalheiras J, Seabra MP, Labrincha JA (2020) Unexplored alternative use of calcareous sludge from the paper-pulp industry in green geopolymer construction materials. Constr Build Mater 246:118457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.118457
Shekhawat P, Sharma G, Singh RM (2019) Strength behavior of alkaline activated eggshell powder and flyash geopolymer cured at ambient temperature. Constr Build Mater 223:1112–1122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.325
Shekhawat P, Sharma G, Singh RM (2020a) Potential application of heat cured eggshell powder and flyash-based geopolymer in pavement construction. Int J Geosynth Gr Eng 6:28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40891-020-00213-2
Shekhawat P, Sharma G, Singh RM (2020b) Microstructural and morphological development of eggshell powder and flyash-based geopolymers. Constr Build Mater 260:119886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.119886
Shekhawat P, Sharma G, Singh RM (2020c) Durability analysis of eggshell powder–flyash geopolymer composite subjected to wetting–drying cycles. J Eng Des Technol 18:2043–2060. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEDT-03-2020-0075
Sindhunata, Van Deventer JSJ, Lukey GC, Xu H (2006) Effect of curing temperature and silicate concentration on fly-ash-based geopolymerization. Ind Eng Chem Res 45: 3559–3568. Doi: https://doi.org/10.1021/ie051251p
Sofi M, van Deventer JSJ, Mendis PA, Lukey GC (2007) Engineering properties of inorganic polymer concretes (IPCs). Cem Concr Res 37:251–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cemconres.2006.10.008
Somna K, Jaturapitakkul C, Kajitvichyanukul P, Chindaprasirt P (2011) NaOH-activated ground fly ash geopolymer cured at ambient temperature. Fuel 90:2118–2124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2011.01.018
Sukmak P, Horpibulsuk S, Shen SL (2013) Strength development in clay-fly ash geopolymer. Constr Build Mater 40:566–574. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2012.11.015
Sukmak P, De SP, Horpibulsuk S, Chindaprasirt P (2015) Sulfate resistance of clay-portland cement and clay high-calcium fly ash geopolymer. J Mater Civ Eng 27:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0001112
Sukmak P, Kunchariyakun K, Sukmak G, Horpibulsuk A, Kassawat S, Arulrajah A (2019) Strength and microstructure of palm oil fuel ash-fly ash–soft soil geopolymer masonry units. J Mater Civ Eng 31:04019164. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002809
Swanepoel JC, Strydom CA (2002) Utilisation of fly ash in a geopolymeric material. Appl Geochem 17:1143–1148
Tahir MFM, Abdullah MMAB, Hasan MRM, Zailani WWA (2019) Optimization of fly ash based geopolymer mix design for rigid pavement application. In: 5th International conference on green design and manufacture. p. 020144
Teixeira-Pinto A, Fernandes P, Jalali S (2002) Geopolymer manufacture and application-Main problems when using concrete technology. In: Geopolymers 2002 International Conference, Melbourne, Australia, Siloxo Pty. Ltd
Tekin I (2016) Properties of NaOH activated geopolymer with marble, travertine and volcanic tuff wastes. Constr Build Mater 127:607–617. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2016.10.038
Thaarrini J, Dhivya S (2016) Comparative study on the production cost of geopolymer and conventional concretes. Int J Civ Eng Res 7:117–124
Van Jaarsveld JGS, Van Deventer JSJ, Lukey GC (2002) The effect of composition and temperature on the properties offly ash- and kaolinite-based geopolymers. Chem Eng J 89:63–73
Van Jaarsveld JGS, Van Deventer JSJ, Lukey GC (2003) The characterization of source materials in fly ash-based geopolymers. Mater Lett 57:1272–1280. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6701(04)91393-8
Weng L, Sagoe-Crentsil K (2007) Dissolution processes, hydrolysis and condensation reactions during geopolymer synthesis: part I-Low Si/Al ratio systems. J Mater Sci 42:2997–3006. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10853-006-0820-2
Xiao R, Polaczyk P, Zhang M, Jiang X, Zhang Y, Huang B, Hu W (2020) Evaluation of glass powder-based geopolymer stabilized road bases containing recycled waste glass aggregate. Transp Res Rec 2674:22–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361198119898695
Xu H, Van Deventer JSJ (2000) The geopolymerisation of alumino-silicate minerals. Int J Miner Process 59:247–266. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-7516(99)00074-5
Xu H, Van Deventer JSJ (2002) Geopolymerisation of multiple minerals. Miner Eng 15:1131–1139. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0892-6875(02)00255-8
Yadav JS, Tiwari SK, Shekhwat P (2018) Strength behaviour of clayey soil mixed with pond ash, cement and randomly distributed fibres. Transp Infrastruct Geotechnol. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40515-018-0056-z
Yang KH, Hwang HZ, Lee S (2010) Effects of water-binder ratio and fine aggregate-total aggregate ratio on the properties of hwangtoh-based alkali-activated concrete. J Mater Civ Eng 22:887–896. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0000091
Yang T, Zhu H, Zhang Z (2017) Influence of fly ash on the pore structure and shrinkage characteristics of metakaolin-based geopolymer pastes and mortars. Constr Build Mater 153:284–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2017.05.067
Zhang W, Yao X, Yang T, Zhang Z (2018) The degradation mechanisms of alkali-activated fly ash/slag blend cements exposed to sulphuric acid. Constr Build Mater 186:1177–1187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2018.08.050
Zhao M, Zhang G, Htet KW, Kwon M, Liu C, Xu Y, Tao M (2019) Freeze-thaw durability of red mud slurry-class F fly ash-based geopolymer: effect of curing conditions. Constr Build Mater 215:381–390. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.04.235
Funding
The authors have not disclosed any funding.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
On the behalf of all authors of the above-mentioned manuscript, I Poonam Shekhawat (Corresponding Authors) states that, we have no conflict of interest to declare.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Shekhawat, P., Sharma, G. & Singh, R.M. A Comprehensive Review of Development and Properties of Flyash-Based Geopolymer as a Sustainable Construction Material. Geotech Geol Eng 40, 5607–5629 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-022-02236-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-022-02236-0