Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Secondary toppling failure analysis and optimal support design for ignimbrites in the Ihlara Valley (Cappadocia, Turkey) by finite element method (FEM)

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Geotechnical and Geological Engineering Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Kizilkaya ignimbrite, characterized by a blocky structure in the Ihlara Valley (Cappadocia, Turkey), poses many hazards to visitors and the human-made churches and dwellings carved in the valley slopes. The instability mechanism in the valley should be carefully investigated to determine and implement a suitable prevention method. For this purpose, the finite element method (FEM) models were developed in RS2 software to illustrate the problem of progressive failure in the valley's cliffs. A simple geometry represented the rock strata and its surroundings. The effect of columnar structure on the cliff stability was mimicked as a jointed medium in two-dimensional numerical models. The results of FEM models revealed that as the stage of failure progresses in the slope, the strength reduction factor decreased subsequently from 2.05 to 0.45. These models correctly captured the prevailing failure mechanisms observed in the valley slopes. Depending on the size of the rock blocks described in the FEM analysis, an effective support system was proposed to remedy the slope failure. It was found that fully bonded rock bolts with a length of at least 2.5 times the width of a typical block should be implemented with a certain grid pattern. The study clearly showed that it was promising to realize a numerical solution to secondary toppling failure in a jointed rock mass using the FEM.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9

modified from Vlachopoulos et al. 2020)

Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adhikary DP, Dyskin AV, Jewell RJ (1997) A study of the mechanism of flexural toppling failure of rock slopes. Rock Mech Rock Eng 30(2):75–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alejano LR, Alonso E (2005) Application of the "shear and tensile strength reduction technique" to obtain factors of safety of toppling and footwall rock slopes. In: Impact of human activity on the geological environment—ISRM Eurock 2005, pp 7–13

  • Alejano LR, Carranza-Torres C, Giani GP, Arzua J (2015) Study of the stability against toppling of rock blocks with rounded edges based on analytical and experimental approaches. Eng Geol 195:172–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Alejano LR, Gomez-Marquez I, Martinez-Alegria R (2010) Analysis of a complex toppling-circular slope failure. Eng Geol 114(1–2):93–104

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amini M, Ardestani A (2019) Stability analysis of the north-eastern slope of Daralou copper open pit mine against a secondary toppling failure. Eng Geol 249:89–101

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amini M, Ardestani A, Khosravi MH (2017) Stability analysis of slide-toe-toppling failure. Eng Geol 228:82–96

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amini M, Majdi A, Veshadi MA (2012) Stability analysis of rock slopes against block-flexure toppling failure. Rock Mech Rock Eng 45(4):519–532

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amini M, Sarfaraz H, Esmaeili K (2018) Stability analysis of slopes with a potential of slide-head-toppling failure. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 112:108–121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aydan O, Kawamoto T (1992) The stability of slopes and underground openings against flexural toppling and their stabilisation. Rock Mech Rock Eng 25(3):143–165

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aydar E, Schmitt AK, Çubukçu HE, Akın L, Ersoy O, Şen E, Duncan RA, Atıcı G (2012) Correlation of ignimbrites in the central Anatolian volcanic province using zircon and plagioclase ages and zircon compositions. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 213–214:83–97

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Azarafza M, Akgün H, Ghazifard A, Asghari-Kaljahi E (2020) Key-block based analytical stability method for discontinuous rock slope subjected to toppling failure. Comput Geotech 124:103620

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babiker AFA, Smith CC, Gilbert M, Ashby JP (2014) Non-associative limit analysis of the toppling-sliding failure of rock slopes. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 71:1–11

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barla G, Borri-Brunetto M, Devin P, Zaninetti A (1995) Validation of a distinct element model for toppling rock slopes. In: 8th ISRM Congress, pp 417–421

  • Barton N (1989) Cavern design for Hong Kong rocks. In: Malone AW, Whiteside PGD (eds) The Seminar Rock cavern-Hong Kong. The Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, pp 179–202

  • Barton NR, Choubey V (1977) The shear strength of rock joints in theory and practice. Rock Mech 10(1–2):1–54

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Beekman PH (1966) The Pliocene and Quaternary volcanism in the Hasan Dag-Melendiz Dag region. Bull MTA 66:90–105

    Google Scholar 

  • Binal A (1996) Investigation of the instability mechanisms observed in volcano-sedimentary rocks at Aksaray-Ihlara valley. MSc thesis, Hacettepe University, Ankara (in Turkish)

  • Bobet A, Fakhimi A, Johnson S, Morris J, Tonon F, Yeung MR (2009) Numerical models in discontinuous media: review of advances for rock mechanics applications. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 135(11):1547–1561

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowa VM, Xia Y, Kabwe E (2018) Analytical technique for stability analyses of rock slopes subjected to block toppling failure. Min Technol 127(4):219–229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brideau MA, Stead D (2010) Controls on block toppling using a three-dimensional distinct element approach. Rock Mech Rock Eng 43(3):241–260

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cai M, Kaiser PK, Tasaka Y, Minami M (2007) Determination of residual strength parameters of jointed rock masses using the GSI system. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 44(2):247–265

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Calcaterra D, Parise M (2010) Weathering as a predisposing factor to slope movements: an introduction. Geol Soc Lond Eng Geol Spec Publ 23:1–4

    Google Scholar 

  • Cruden DM (1989) Limits to common toppling. Can Geotech J 26(4):737–742

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dawson EM, Roth WH, Drescher A (1999) Slope stability analysis by strength reduction. Geotechnique 49(6):835–840

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doğan U, Koçyiğit A, Yılmaz E (2019) Geomorphological evolutionary history of the Melendiz River Valley, Cappadocia, Turkey. Mediterr Geosci Rev 1(2):203–222

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elmo D, Stead D (2010) An integrated numerical modelling–discrete fracture network approach applied to the characterisation of rock mass strength of naturally fractured pillars. Rock Mech Rock Eng 43(1):3–19

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erguler ZA (2009) Field-based experimental determination of the weathering rates of the Cappadocian tuffs. Eng Geol 105:186–199

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Evans RS (1981) An analysis of secondary toppling rock failures-the stress redistribution method. Q J Eng Geol Lond 14:77–86

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman RE, Bray JW (1976) Toppling of rock slopes. In: Proceedings of Speciality Conference Rock Engineering for Foundations and Slopes, Boulder, Colorado, ASCE, 2

  • Griffiths DV, Lane PA (1999) Slope stability analysis by finite elements. Geotechnique 49(3):387–403

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haas CJ (1975) Shear resistance of rock bolts. In: 10th annual meeting of American Institute of mining, metallurgical and petroleum engineers. pp 32–40

  • Haghgouei H, Kargar A, Amini R, M. Esmaeili K. (2020) An analytical solution for analysis of toppling-slumping failure in rock slopes. Eng Geol 265:105396

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hammah RE, Yacoub TE, Corkum B, Curran JH (2005) The shear strength reduction method for the generalized Hoek–Brown criterion. In: 40th US symposium on rock mechanics, Anchorage, Alaska

  • Hammah RE, Yacoub TE, Corkum B, Wibowo F, Curran JH (2007) Analysis of blocky rock slopes with finite element shear strength reduction analysis. In: 1st Canada–U.S. rock mechanics symposium, Vancouver, Canada, pp 329–334

  • Hammah RE, Yacoub T, Corkum B, Curran JH (2008) The practical modelling of discontinuous rock masses with finite element analysis. In: 42nd US rock mechanics symposium, pp 56–63

  • Hammah RE, Yacoub T, Curran JH (2009) Variation of failure mechanisms of slopes in jointed rock masses with changing scale. In: 3rd CANUS rock mechanics symposium (Paper No. 3956), Toronto

  • Hoek E (2008) Practical rock engineering. Evert Hoek Consulting Engineer Inc., Toronto

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoek E, Bray JW (1991) Rock slope engineering. Elsevier Science Publishing, New York, p 358

    Google Scholar 

  • Hoek E, Carranza-Torres C, Corkum B (2002) Hoek–Brown failure criterion—2002 edition. In: 1st North American rock mechanics symposium, Toronto, pp 267–273

  • Kaşmer Ö, Ulusay R, Geniş M (2013) Assessments on the stability of natural slopes prone to toe erosion and man-made historical semi-underground openings carved in soft tuffs at Zelve Open-Air Museum (Cappadocia, Turkey). Eng Geol 158:135–158

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lanaro F, Jing L, Stephansson O, Barla G (1997) DEM modelling of laboratory tests of block toppling. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 34(3–4):173e1-173e15

    Google Scholar 

  • Le Pennec JL, Bourdier JL, Froger A, Temel A, Camus G, Gourgaud A (1994) Neogene ignimbrites of Nevsehir Plateau (central Turkey): stratigraphy, distribution and source constraints. J Volcanol Geotherm Res 63:59–87

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu CH, Jaksa MB, Meyers AG (2010) Toppling mechanisms of rock slopes considering stabilization from the underlying rock mass. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 47(2):348–354

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Majdi A, Amini M (2011) Analysis of geo-structural defects in flexural toppling failure. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 48(2):175–186

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mas ID, Pierce ME, Darcel C, Reyes-Montes J, Potyondy DO, Paul YR, Cundall PA (2011) The synthetic rock mass approach for jointed rock mass modelling. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 48(2):219–244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mehranpour MH, Kulatilake PHSW, Xingen M, He M (2018) Development of new three-dimensional rock mass strength criteria. Rock Mech Rock Eng 51(11):3537–3561

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mohtarami E, Jafari A, Amini M (2014) Stability analysis of slopes against combined circular–toppling failure. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 67:43–56

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muralha J (2003) Parameter variability in the toppling stability of rock blocks. In: Proceedings of the 10th conference of the international society for rock mechanic, Johannesburg, South Africa, pp 849–854

  • Nichol SL, Hungr O, Evans SG (2002) Large-scale brittle and ductile toppling of rock slopes. Can Geotech J 39(4):773–788

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Official Gazette (1990) Ihlara Vadisi Özel Çevre Koruma Bölgesi, Bakanlar Kurulu Kararı, 22 October 1990, No. 90/1117 (in Turkish)

  • Pain A, Kanungo DP, Sarkar S (2014) Rock slope stability assessment using finite element-based modelling—examples from the Indian Himalayas. Geomech Geoeng Int J 9(3):215–230

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rocscience Inc (2019a) RS2 Version 9.0—finite element analysis for excavations and slopes. https://www.rocscience.com. Toronto, ON, Canada. Accessed 18 Nov 2019

  • Rocscience Inc (2019b) Dips Version 7.0—graphical and statistical analysis of orientation data. https://www.rocscience.com. Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Accessed 25 Nov 2019

  • Roosta RM, Sadaghiani MH, Pak A (2005) Strength reduction technique in stability analysis of jointed rock slopes. Int J Civ Eng 3(3–4):152–165

    Google Scholar 

  • Roy D, Maheshwari P (2018) Probabilistic analysis of rock slopes against block toppling failure. Indian Geotech J 48(3):484–497

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sagaseta C, Sanchez JM, Canizal J (2001) A general analytical solution for the required anchor force in rock slopes with toppling failure. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 38(3):421–435

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarfaraz H (2020) Stability analysis of flexural toppling failure using the Sarma’s method. Geotech Geol Eng 38(4):3667–3682

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarfaraz H, Amini M (2020) Numerical modeling of rock slopes with a potential of block-flexural toppling failure. J Min Environ 11(1):247–259

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarfaraz H, Amini M (2020) Numerical simulation of slide-toe-toppling failure using distinct element method and finite element method. Geotech Geol Eng 38(2):2199–2212

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarfaraz H, Khosravi MH, Amini M (2019) Numerical analysis of slide-head-toppling failure. J Min Environ 10(4):1001–1011

    Google Scholar 

  • Sari M (2009) The stochastic assessment of strength and deformability characteristics for a pyroclastic rock mass. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 46(3):613–626

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sari M (2019) Stability analysis of cut slopes using empirical, kinematical, numerical and limit equilibrium methods: case of old Jeddah-Mecca road (Saudi Arabia). Environ Earth Sci 78(21):621

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sari M, Çömlekçiler F (2007) Kızılkaya ignimbiritlerinde görülen süreksizliklerin incelenmesi ve kaya kütlesinin tanımlanması. S.Ü. Müh-Mim Fak Derg 23(1–2), 207–216 (in Turkish)

  • Scavia C, Barla G, Bernaudo V (1990) Probabilistic stability analysis of block toppling failure in rock slopes. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci Geomech Abstr 27(6):465–478

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shen J, Karakus M (2014) Three-dimensional numerical analysis for rock slope stability using shear strength reduction method. Can Geotech J 51(2):164–172

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith JV (2015) Self-stabilization of toppling and hillside creep in layered rocks. Eng Geol 196:139–149

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spreafico MC, Cervi F, Francioni M, Stead D, Borgatti L (2017) An investigation into the development of toppling at the edge of fractured rock plateaux using a numerical modelling approach. Geomorphology 288:83–98

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stead D, Eberhardt E, Coggan JS (2006) Developments in the characterization of complex rock slope deformation and failure using numerical modeling techniques. Eng Geol 83(3):217–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stillborg B (1994) Professional users’ handbook for rock bolting, 2nd edn. Trans Tech Publication, Clausthal-Zellerfeld, p 164

    Google Scholar 

  • Sun C, Chen C, Zheng Y, Xia K, Zhang W (2018) Topping failure analysis of anti-dip bedding rock slopes subjected to crest loads. Int J Geotech Geol Engnng 12(11):685–693

    Google Scholar 

  • Taşpınar M (2015) Ihlara Vadisi (Aksaray) Boyunca Kaya Düşmelerinin Değerlendirilmesi, MSc Thesis, Aksaray Universitesi (in Turkish)

  • Tatone BSA, Grasselli G (2010) ROCKTOPPLE: a spreadsheet-based program for probabilistic block-toppling analysis. Comput Geosci 36(1):98–114

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Topal T, Doyuran V (1997) Engineering geological properties and durability assessment of the Cappadocian tuff. Eng Geol 47(1–2):175–187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ulusay R, Gokceoglu C, Topal T, Sonmez H, Tuncay E, Erguler ZA, Kasmer O (2006) Assessment of environmental and engineering geological problems for the possible re-use of an abandoned rock-hewn settlement in Urgüp (Cappadocia), Turkey. Environ Geol 50(4):473–494

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Varnacı-Uzun F, Somuncu M (2015) Evaluation of the sustainability of tourism in Ihlara Valley and suggestions. Eur J Sustain Dev 4(2):165–174

    Google Scholar 

  • Vlachopoulos N, Cruz D, Tatone BSA, Lisjak A, Mahabadi OK, Forbes B, Carrapatoso C (2020) The performance of axially loaded, fully grouted rock bolts based on pull-out experiments utilizing fiber optics technology and associated numerical modelling of such support elements. Geotech Geol Eng 38(2):1389–1407

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wyllie DC, Mah CW (2004) Rock slope engineering—civil and mining, 4th edn. Spon Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Yilmaz HM, Yakar M, Mutluoglu O, Kavurmaci MM, Yurt K (2012) Monitoring of soil erosion in Cappadocia region (Selime-Aksaray-Turkey). Environ Earth Sci 66(1):75–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • You G, Mandalawi MA, Soliman A, Dowling K, Dahlhaus P (2018) Finite element analysis of rock slope stability using shear strength reduction method. Soil Testing, Soil Stability and Ground Improvement, Sustainable Civil Infrastructures 1:227–235

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zanbak C (1983) Design charts for rock slopes susceptible to toppling. J Geotech Enginng 109(8):1039–1062

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang G, Wang F, Zhang H, Tang H, Li X, Zhong Y (2018) New stability calculation method for rock slopes subject to flexural toppling failure. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci 106:319–328

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zheng Y, Chen C, Liu T, Zhang H, Sun C (2019) Theoretical and numerical study on the block-flexure toppling failure of rock slopes. Eng Geol 263:105309

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Mining Engineering, Aksaray University, 68100, Aksaray, Turkey

    Mehmet Sari

Authors
  1. Mehmet Sari
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Mehmet Sari.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. The appropriate permissions from the responsible authorities were undertaken for conducting the study in a Special Protection Area.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Sari, M. Secondary toppling failure analysis and optimal support design for ignimbrites in the Ihlara Valley (Cappadocia, Turkey) by finite element method (FEM). Geotech Geol Eng 39, 5135–5160 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-021-01819-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-021-01819-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation