Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cyclic and Dynamic Behavior of Sand–Rubber and Clay–Rubber Mixtures

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Geotechnical and Geological Engineering Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this paper, the possibility of using fine scrap tyre rubber to improve the mechanical properties of soil subjected to cyclic loading is addressed. Ground rubber (0.1–0.8 mm) in various proportions (0, 9, 33% and 100% by weight) was mixed with a uniform river sand and a lean clay. Cyclic triaxial tests with bender elements were executed to observe the behaviour of the materials and also to determine damping and shear stiffness parameters. The results have shown that the addition of rubber has significantly decreased the density and shear stiffness of both types of soils, which favours mitigation of vibrations. The shear stiffness degradation at shear strains higher than 10−3 was lower in specimens containing more rubber. Within this strain range, addition of rubber decreased the damping ratio, but increased the normalized accumulated absolute strain energy absorbed by the material. Higher rubber content in sandy specimens resulted in more elastic behaviour, with lower strain accumulation in each loading cycle, eventually resulting in a higher number of loading cycles before failure. The positive effect of rubber presence was not observed in compacted clay–rubber mixture, which sustained less loading cycles than clay alone. The influence of rubber addition in the p′-q stress space was expressed in the form of lower pore pressure generation which shifted the stress path further from the failure envelope.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig.6
Fig.7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14
Fig. 15
Fig. 16

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Akbulut S, Arasan S, Kalkan E (2007) Modification of clayey soils using scrap tire rubber and synthetic fibers. Appl Clay Sci 38:23–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anastasiadis A, Senetakis K, Pitilakis K (2012) Small-strain shear modulus and damping ratio of sand–rubber and gravel–rubber mixtures. Geotech Geol Eng 30(2):363–382

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ASTM (ASTM International) (2004) Standard practice for use of scrap tires in civil engineering applications, D 6270–98, vol 11.04

  • ASTM (ASTM International) (2010) Standard test method for metal powder specific surface area by physical adsorption. B 922, vol 02.05

  • ASTM (ASTM International) (2011) Standard practice for classification of soils for engineering purposes (unified soil classification system). D 2487–11, vol 04.08

  • ASTM (ASTM International) (2012) Standard test method for true specific gravity of refractory materials by gas-comparison pycnometer, C604–02

  • ASTM (ASTM International) (2016a) Standard test methods for maximum index density and unit weight of soils using a vibratory table, D 4253–16, vol 04.08

  • ASTM (ASTM International) (2016b) Standard test methods for minimum index density and unit weight of soils and calculation of relative density, D 4254–16, vol 04.08

  • Black DK, Lee KL (1973) Saturating laboratory samples by back pressure. J Soil Mech Found Div ASCE 99(SM1):75–93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camacho-Tauta J, Cascante G, Viana da Fonseca A, Santos JA (2015) Time and frequency domain evaluation of bender elements systems. Geotechnique 65(7):548–562

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carraro A, Budagher E, Badanagki M, Kang JB (2013) Sustainable stabilization of sulfate-bearing soil with expansive soil–rubber technology. Technical report no. CDOT-2013–2, March 2013

  • CEN (2010) TS 14243-Materials produced from end of life tires. Specification of categories based on their dimension(s) and impurities and methods for determining their dimension(s) and impurities, Brussels

  • Chenari JR, Alaie R, Fatahi B (2019) Constrained compression models for tire-derived aggregate-sand mixtures using enhanced large scale oedometer testing apparatus. Geotech Geol Eng 37:2591–2610. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-018-00780-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunham-Friel J, Carraro JAH (2011) Shear strength and stiffness of expansive soil and rubber (ESR) mixtures in undrained axisymmetric compression. American Society of Civil Engineers, Geotechnical Special Publication, (211 GSP), pp 1111–1120. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1061/41165(397)114

  • Dyvik R, Madshus C (1985) Lab measurements of Gmax using bender elements. In: Proceedings ASCE annual convention: advances in the art of testing soils under cyclic conditions, Detroit, Michigan, pp 186–197

  • Edil TB, Bosscher PJ (1994) Engineering properties of tire chips and soil mixtures. Geotech Test J 17(4):453–464

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Edinçliler A, Baykal G, Saygili A (2010) Influence of different processing techniques on mechanical properties of used tires in embankment construction. Waste Manag 30:1073–1108

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ehsani M, Shariatmadari N, Mirhosseini SM (2015) Shear modulus and damping ratio of sand-granulated rubber mixtures. J Cent South Univ 22(8):3159–3167

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Esmaeili M, Mosayebi SA, Nakhaee N (2013) Performance of shred tire mixed with railway subgrade in reduction of train induced vibrations. Adv Railw Eng Int J 1(1):37–49

    Google Scholar 

  • Feng ZY, Sutter KG (2000) Dynamic properties of granulated rubber-sand mixtures. Geotech Test J GTJODJ 23(3):338–344

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghasemzadeh H, Abounouri AA (2013) Compressional and shear wave intrinsic attenuation and velocity in partially saturated soils. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 51:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2013.03.011

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghazavi M (2004) Shear strength characteristics of sand-mixed with granular rubber. Geotech Geol Eng 22:401–416

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gromysz K, Kowalska M (2017) Reduction of vibrations applied on structures—results of chamber tests with the use of tire derived aggregate. Proc Eng 193:305–312

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hazarika H, Kohama E, Sugano T (2008) Underwater shake table tests on waterfront structures protected with tire chips cushion. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 134(12):1706–1719

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heyer NC (2012) Swell, stiffness and strength of expansive soil–rubber (ESR) mixtures at various scales: effect of specimen and rubber particle sizes. MSc thesis, Colorado State University, Fort Collins

  • Hong Y, Yang Z, Orense RP, Lu Y (2015) Investigation of sand–tire mixtures as liquefaction remedial measure. In: Proceedings of 10th Pacific conference on earthquake engineering—building an earthquake resilient Pacific. Australian Earthquake Engineering Society, Sydney, Australia

  • Indraratna B, Qi Y, Heitor A (2017) Evaluating the Properties of Mixtures of Steel Furnace Slag, Coal Wash, and Rubber Crumbs Used as Subballast. J Mater Civ Eng 30(1):04017251

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ishibashi I, Zhang X (1993) Unified dynamic shear moduli and damping ratios of sand and clay. Soils Found 33(1):182–191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ishihara K (1985) Stability of natural deposits during earthquakes. In: Proceedings of 11th international conference on soil mechanics and foundations engineering, San Fransisco, Balkema, pp 321–376

  • ISO (International Organization for Standardization) (2017) 14688–2 Geotechnical investigation and testing. Identification and classification of soil. Part 2: principles for a classification

  • ISO (International Organization for Standardization) (2015) ISO 60:1977 Plastics -  Determination of apparent density of material that can be poured from a specified funnel

  • ISO (International Organization for Standardization) (2018a) ISO 17892-12:2018 Geotechnical investigation and testing — Laboratory testing of soil — Part 12: Determination of liquid and plastic limits

  • ISO (International Organization for Standardization) (2018b) ISO 17892-9:2018 Geotechnical investigation and testing — Laboratory testing of soil — Part 9: Consolidated triaxial compression tests on water saturated soils

  • Jamiolkowski M (2012) Role of geophysical testing in geotechnical site characterization. Soils Rocks 35(2):117–137

    Google Scholar 

  • JGS (Japanese Geotechnical Society) (2000) Method for cyclic triaxial test to determine deformation properties of geomaterials. JGS 0542–2000

  • Kim H-K, Santamarina JC (2008) Sand–rubber mixtures (large rubber chips). Can Geotech J 45:1457–1466

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kokusho T (1980) Cyclic triaxial test of dynamic soil properties for wide strain range. Soils Found 20(2):45–60

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kowalska M, Chmielewski M (2017) Mechanical Parameters of Rubber-Sand Mixtures for Numerical Analysis of a Road Embankment. WMCAUS IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng 245(2017):052003. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/245/5/052003

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kramer SL (1996) Geotechnical earthquake engineering. Pearson, Upper Saddle River

    Google Scholar 

  • Kumar SS, Krishna AM, Dey A (2015) Cyclic response of sand using stress controlled cyclic triaxial tests. In: Proceedings of 50th Indian geotechnical conference, 17th–19th December 2015, Pune, Maharashtra, India

  • Lee JH, Salgado R, Bernal A, Lovell CW (1999) Shredded tires and rubber-sand as lightweight backfill. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 125(2):132–141

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee J-S, Dodds J, Santamarina JC (2007) Behavior of Rigid-Soft Particle Mixtures. J Mater Civ Eng 19(2):179–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lings ML, Greening PD (2001) A novel bender/extender element for soil testing. Geotechnique 51(8):713–717

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madhusudhan BR, Boominathan A, Banerjee S (2017) Static and large-strain dynamic properties of sand–rubber tire shred mixtures. J Mater Civ Eng 29(10):04017165. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0002016

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madhusudhan BR, Boominathan A, Banerjee S (2018) Comparison of cyclic triaxial test results on sand–rubber tire shred mixtures with dynamic simple shear test results. Geotech Earthq Eng Soil Dyn. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784481486014

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Madhusudhan BR, Boominathan A, Banerjee S (2019) Factors affecting strength and stiffness of dry sand–rubber tire shred mixtures. Geotech Geol Eng 37:2763–2780. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-018-00792-y

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mashiri MS, Vinod JS, Sheikh MN (2016) Liquefaction potential and dynamic properties of sand-tyre chip (STCh) mixtures. Geotech Test J 39(1):69–79

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McCartney JS, Ghaaowd I, Fox PJ, Sanders MJ, Thielmann SS, Sander AC (2017) Shearing behavior of tire-derived aggregate with large particle size. II: cyclic simple shear. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 143(10): 04017079

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Millen M, Rios S, Quintero J, Viana da Fonseca A (2019) Prediction of time of liquefaction using kinetic and strain energy. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2019.105898

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakhaei A, Marandi SM, Kermani SS, Bagheripour MH (2012) Dynamic properties of granular soils mixed with granulated rubber. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 43:124–132

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Özkul ZH, Baykal G (2007) Shear behavior of compacted rubber fiber-clay composite in drained and undrained loading. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 133(7):767–781

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pistolas GA, Anastasiadis A, Pitilakis K (2018) Dynamic behaviour of granular soil materials mixed with granulated rubber: effect of rubber content and granularity on the small-strain shear modulus and damping ratio. Geotech Geol Eng 36:1267–1281

    Google Scholar 

  • Richart FE, Hall JR, Woods RD (1970) Vibrations of soils and foundations. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, p 414

    Google Scholar 

  • Seda JH, Lee JC, Carraro JAH (2007) Beneficial use of waste tire rubber for swelling potential mitigation in expansive soils. Geotechnical Special Publication 172, American Society of Civil Engineers, Denver, pp 1–9

  • Shariatmadari N, Karimpour-Fard M, Shargh A (2018) Undrained monotonic and cyclic behavior of sand-ground rubber mixtures. Earthq Eng Eng Vib 17:541–553. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11803-018-0461-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Soares M (2015) Evaluation of soil liquefaction potential based on laboratory data. Major factors and limit boundaries. PhD thesis, University do Porto

  • Stempkowska A (2014) Properties of clays and clinkers. Red clay. Report, AGH University of Science and Technology, Kraków (in Polish)

  • Szczepański T (2017) Saturating overconsolidated cohesive soils: theory and standards versus reality. In: 6th international workshop in situ and lab characterization of OC subsoil, Poznań, pp 93–100

  • Tatlisoz N, Edil TB, Benson CH (1998) Interaction between reinforcing geosynthetics and soil-tire chip mixtures. J Geotech Geoenviron Eng 124(11):1109–1119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teixeira S (2015) Evaluation and modelling of sandy soil behavior in terms of liquefaction potential. MSc thesis, University of Porto (in Portuguese)

  • Thompson DJ, Jiang J, Toward M, Hussein M, Ntotsios E, Dijckmans A, Coulier P, Lombaert G, Degrande G (2016) Reducing railway-induced ground-borne vibration by using open trenches and soft-filled barriers. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 88:45–59

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trifunac MD (2003) Nonlinear soil response as a natural passive isolation mechanism. Paper II. The 1933, Long Beach, California Earthquake. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 23(7):549–562

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsang H-H, Pitilakis K (2019) Mechanism of geotechnical seismic isolation system: analytical modeling. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 122:171–184

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tsang H-H, Lo SH, Xu X, Sheikh MN (2012) Seismic isolation for low-to-medium-rise buildings using granulated rubber–soil mixtures: numerical study. Earthq Eng Struct Dyn 41:2009–2024

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Valle-Molina C, Stokoe K (2012) Seismic measurements in sand specimens with varying degrees of saturation using piezoelectric transducers. Can Geotech J 49:671–685. https://doi.org/10.1139/T2012-033

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vieira N, Viana da Fonseca A, Ferreira C (2005) Proceso de saturación de ensayos triaxiales. Geotecnia 104:31–42. Sociedade Portuguesa de Geotecnia (in Spanish)

  • Vinot V, Baleshwar S (2013) Shredded tire-sand as fill material for embankment applications. J Environ Res Dev 7(4A):1622–1627

    Google Scholar 

  • Watanabe K, Kusakabe O (2013) Reappraisal of loading rate effects on sand behavior in view of seismic design for pile foundation. Soils Found 53(2):215–231

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamada Y, Ishihara K (1979) Anisotropic deformation characteristics of sand under three-dimensional stress conditions. Soils Found 19(2):79–94

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yoon S, Prezzi M, Siddiki NZ, Kim B (2005) Construction of test embankment using sand-tire shred mixture as fill material. Waste Manag 26:1033–1044

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Youwai S, Bergado DT (2003) Strength and deformation characteristics of shredded rubber tire–sand mixtures. Can Geotech J 40:254–264

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge BIOSAFE for providing the rubber for this study. This work was financially supported by: Project POCI-01-0145-FEDER-007457 – CONSTRUCT – Institute of R&D in Structures and Construction funded by FEDER funds through COMPETE2020 – Programa Operacional Competitividade e Internacionalização (POCI) – and by national funds through FCT – Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia; Scholarship Reference: SFRH/BPD/85863/2012.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Civil Engineering, CONSTRUCT-GEO, Faculty of Engineering (FEUP), University of Porto, R. Dr. Roberto Frias, s/n, 4200-465, Porto, Portugal

    Sara Rios & António Viana da Fonseca

  2. Department of Geotechnics and Roads, Silesian University of Technology (SUT), ul. Akademicka 5, 44-100, Gliwice, Poland

    Magdalena Kowalska

Authors
  1. Sara Rios
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Magdalena Kowalska
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. António Viana da Fonseca
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sara Rios.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Rios, S., Kowalska, M. & Viana da Fonseca, A. Cyclic and Dynamic Behavior of Sand–Rubber and Clay–Rubber Mixtures. Geotech Geol Eng 39, 3449–3467 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-021-01704-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10706-021-01704-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation