Abstract
This paper is a re-examination to quantify the flame tilt angle of fires induced by stack effect from a heat and mass transfer perspective. In previous studies, the critical transition and length of the deflection flame were formulated. In the current study, with different kinds of fuels, the flame tilt angles under different strength of stack effect are compared. Results show that under stack effect, the flame tilt angles are quite close at the quasi-steady state within a narrow range regardless of the heat release rate of fire and the position of the open window in a stairwell, which indicates that the inertial force of air flow induced by the stack effect equilibrates dynamically with the thermal buoyancy induced by fire plume. However, the velocity of air flow drawn into the fire compartment is directly related to the strength of stack effect, which is mainly influenced by the heat release rate of fire. A new correlation for the flame tilt angle under the influence of stack effect is developed by taking the dynamic equilibrium into account. The tangent value of the flame tilt angle is linearly proportional to the 4/15 power of the heat release rate of fire. Additionally, a correlation to predict the heat release rate with the titled flame length and flame tilt angle is formulated.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Guan CH (2019) Spatial distribution of high-rise buildings and its relationship to public transit development in Shanghai. Transp Policy 81:371–380
Ji J, Zhu L, Ding L et al (2020) Numerical investigation of external wind effect on smoke characteristics in a stairwell. Fire Technol 56:1681–1702
Qi D, Wang L, Zmeureanu R (2017) The effects of non-uniform temperature distribution on neutral plane level in non-adiabatic high-rise shafts during fires. Fire Technol 53(1):153–172
Klote JH (1991) A general routine for analysis of stack effect. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Building and Fire Research Laboratory
Ji J, Li M, Gao ZH et al (2016) Experimental investigation of combustion characteristics under different ventilation conditions in a compartment connected to a stairwell. Appl Therm Eng 101:390–401
Vigne G, Gutierrez-Montes C, Cantizano A et al (2019) Review and validation of the current smoke plume entrainment models for large-volume buildings. Fire Technol 55:789–816
Węgrzyński W, Lipecki T (2018) Wind and fire coupled modelling—part i: literature review. Fire Technol 54:1405–1442
Zukoski EE (1995) A review of flows driven by natural convection in adiabatic shafts. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg
Li LJ, Ji J, Fan CG et al (2014) Experimental investigation on the characteristics of buoyant plume movement in a stairwell with multiple openings. Energ Build 68:108–120
Qi D, Wang L, Zmeureanu R (2014) An analytical model of heat and mass transfer through non-adiabatic high-rise shafts during fires. Int J Heat Mass Transf 72:585–594
Awwad T, Kodsi S A (2017) A comparison of numerical simulation models to determine the location of the neutral plane. In: Proceedings of the 19th international conference on soil mechanics and geotechnical engineering, pp 1947–1950.
Zhang JY, Li YQ, Huo R et al (2011) Experimental studies on a rise-time of smoke layer interface in vertical shaft. Procedia Eng 11:162–170
Tanaka T, Fujita T, Yamaguchi J (2000) Investigation into rise time of buoyant fire plume fronts. Int J Eng Perform Based Fire Codes 2(1):14–25
Ji J, Li LJ, Shi WX et al (2013) Experimental investigation on the rising characteristics of the fire-induced buoyant plume in stairwells. Int J Heat Mass Transf 64:193–201
Ji J, Li M, Shi W et al (2017) Deflection characteristic of flame with the airflow induced by stack effect. Int J Therm Sci 115:160–168
Ji J, Wan H, Li Y et al (2015) Influence of relative location of two openings on fire and smoke behaviors in stairwell with a compartment. Int J Therm Sci 89:23–33
Gao Z, Yuan X, Ji J et al (2017) Influence of stack effect on flame shapes of gas burner fires. Appl Therm Eng 127:1574–1581
Sun XQ (2009) Studies on smoke movement and control in shafts and stairwell in high-rise buildings. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei.
Chen Q, Chen TBY, Yuen ACY et al (2020) Investigation of door width towards flame tilting behaviours and combustion species in compartment fire scenarios using large eddy simulation. Int J Heat Mass Transf 150:119373
Thomas PH (1963) The size of flames from natural fires. Proc Combust Inst 9(1):844–859
American Gas Association (1974) LNG Safety Research Program, Report IS.
Welker JR, Sliepcevich CM (1966) Bending of wind-blown flames from liquid pools. Fire Technol 2(2):127–135
Oka Y, Sugawa O, Imamura T et al (2000) Effect of cross-winds to apparent flame height and tilt angle from several kinds of fire source. Fire Saf Sci 6:1101–1112
Li M, Shu Z, Geng S et al (2020) Experimental and modelling study on flame tilt angle of flame spread over jet fuel under longitudinally forced air flows. Fuel 270:117516
Hansen R (2019) Fire behaviour of multiple fires in a mine drift with longitudinal ventilation. Int J Min Sci Technol 29(2):245–254
Lam CS, Weckman EJ (2015a) Wind-blown pool fire, part i: experimental characterization of the thermal field. Fire Saf J 75:1–13
Lam CS, Weckman EJ (2015b) Wind-blown pool fire, part ii: comparison of measured flame geometry with semi-empirical correlations. Fire Saf J 78:130–141
Shi WX, Ji J, Sun JH et al (2014) Experimental study on influence of stack effect on fire in the compartment adjacent to stairwell of high rise building. J Civ Eng Manag 20:121–131
Satoh H, Sugawa O, Kurioka H (1997) Flame inclination with induced wind through inlet opening in a tall and narrow atrium. Fire Saf Sci 5:273–284
Yuan X, Gao Z, Ji J et al (2017) Influence of stack effect on the heat feedback to the n-heptane pool fires. IOP Conf Ser Mater Sci Eng IOP Publ 201(1):012027
Drysdale D (2011) An Introduction to Fire Dynamics, 3rd edn. Wiley, Chichester
Huang H, Oka R, Liu NA, Zhang LH, Deng ZH, Kato S (2009) Experimental study of fire growth in a reduced-scale compartment under different approaching external wind conditions. Fire Saf J 44:311–321
Hu L, Liu S, de Ris JL et al (2013) A new mathematical quantification of wind-blown flame tilt angle of hydrocarbon pool fires with a new global correlation model. Fuel 106:730–736
Ji J, Yuan X, Li K et al (2015) Influence of the external wind on flame shapes of n-heptane pool fires in long passage connected to a shaft. Combust Flame 162(5):2098–2107
Yuan XY (2017) Studies on fire development characteristics in shaft and adjacent space of buildings under external wind conditions. Ph. D. Thesis, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei.
McCaffrey B (1995) “Flame Height”, the SFPE handbook of fire protection engineering, 2nd edn. Society of Fire Protection Engineers and National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, pp 2-1-2–8
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) under Grant No. 51976211 and 52006075, opening fund of the State Key Laboratory of Fire Science under Grant No. HZ2019-KF06.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Li, M., Gao, Z., Ji, J. et al. Interaction of Heat Release Rate, Flame Tilt Angle and Flame Length of a Compartment Fire Under Stack Effect. Fire Technol 57, 1479–1495 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-020-01063-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-020-01063-0