Abstract
Adaptation to one stressor can influence organismal responses to future environmental changes, either to the same or a novel stressor. But there is a lack of research on this topic, particularly in the context of freshwater habitats. Fluctuating salinity and heatwaves that are becoming more frequent and intensified are affecting freshwater ecosystems. We applied an experimental evolution approach to examine the influence of adaptation to elevated salinity on the population’s responses to subsequent salt and heat stress. We conducted lab experiments using Daphnia pulicaria cultured from individuals with previous 8-week exposure history to two salinity treatments (6.5 or 350 mg Cl−/L). Iso-female lines with or without prior exposure to elevated salinity were assayed along a salt gradient (18.5 to 1500 mg Cl−/L) or an acute heat gradient treatment (20 to 35 °C). Our results showed that Daphnia survival, fecundity, and body length growth rate declined with increased salt concentration, with survival and fecundity being most sensitive. The treatment group with previous salt exposure history had higher survival and fecundity than the naïve treatment group when treated with salt, without loss of fitness under low-salinity conditions. Daphnia survival and growth rates were reduced in temperatures higher than 30 °C. Despite the fact that the two stressors can induce similar defense mechanisms, previous exposure history to salt did not prevent Daphnia populations from experiencing reduced survival and growth rates under heated conditions. Our work demonstrates that organisms can rapidly adapt to a stressor that protects them from later exposure to increases in this stressor, without a trade-off in fitness under undisturbed conditions, but this evolved tolerance cannot protect them from all levels of this stressor or alleviate damage by a novel one.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
Data are available from https://doi.org/10.5683/SP3/YMEVPE.
Code availability
R code is available from the corresponding author upon request
References
Anderson JT, Lee CR, Rushworth CA et al (2013) Genetic trade-offs and conditional neutrality contribute to local adaptation. Mol Ecol 22(3):699–708. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2012.05522.x
Antoł A, Berg MP, Verberk WC (2021) Effects of body size and lung type on desiccation resistance, hypoxia tolerance and thermal preference in two terrestrial isopods species. J Insect Physiol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinsphys.2021.104247
Arnott SE, Celis-Salgado MP, Valleau RE et al (2020) Road salt impacts freshwater zooplankton at concentrations below current water quality guidelines. Environ Sci Technol 54(15):9398–9407. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c02396
Ashe A, Colot V, Oldroyd BP (2021) How does epigenetics influence the course of evolution? Philos Trans R Soc B. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0111
Baek MJ, Yoon TJ, Kim DG et al (2014) Effects of road deicer runoff on benthic macroinvertebrate communities in Korean freshwaters with toxicity tests of calcium chloride (CaCl2). Water Air Soil Pollut 225(6):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-014-1961-6
Barrett RD, Schluter D (2008) Adaptation from standing genetic variation. Trends Ecol Evol 23(1):38–44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2007.09.008
Bartels D, Sunkar R (2005) Drought and salt tolerance in plants. Crit Rev Plant Sci 24(1):23–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352680590910410
Bates D, Mächler M, Bolker B et al (2015) Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. J Stat Softw 67(1):1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01
Bell G, Gonzalez A (2009) Evolutionary rescue can prevent extinction following environmental change. Ecol Lett 12(9):942–948. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01350.x
Beyrend-Dur D, Souissi S, Devreker D et al (2009) Life cycle traits of two transatlantic populations of Eurytemora affinis (Copepoda: Calanoida): salinity effects. J Plankton Res 31(7):713–728. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/fbp020
Bubliy OA, Loeschcke V (2005) Correlated responses to selection for stress resistance and longevity in a laboratory population of Drosophila melanogaster. J Evol Biol 18(4):789–803. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2005.00928.x
Cañedo-Argüelles M, Hawkins CP, Kefford BJ et al (2016) Saving freshwater from salts. Science 351(6276):914–916. https://doi.org/10.1126/scienceaad3488
Castaño-Sánchez A, Hose GC, Reboleira ASP (2020) Salinity and temperature increase impact groundwater crustaceans. Sci Rep 10(1):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-69050-7
Chen CY, Folt CL (2002) Ecophysiological responses to warming events by two sympatric zooplankton species. J Plankton Res 24(6):579–589. https://doi.org/10.1093/plankt/246579
Coeurdassier M, De Vaufleury A, Badot PM (2003) Bioconcentration of cadmium and toxic effects on life-history traits of pond snails (Lymnaea palustris and Lymnaea stagnalis) in laboratory bioassays. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 45(1):0102–0109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-002-0152-4
Coldsnow KD, Mattes BM, Hintz WD et al (2017) Rapid evolution of tolerance to road salt in zooplankton. Environ Pollut 222:367–373. https://doi.org/10.1016/jenvpol201612024
Daufresne M, Lengfellner K, Sommer U (2009) Global warming benefits the small in aquatic ecosystems. Proc Natl Acad Sci 106(31):12788–12793. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas0902080106
Declerck SA, Malo AR, Diehl S et al (2015) Rapid adaptation of herbivore consumers to nutrient limitation: eco-evolutionary feedbacks to population demography and resource control. Ecol Lett 18(6):553–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12436
Ding L, Li W, Li N et al (2019) Antioxidant responses to salinity stress in an invasive species, the red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans) and involvement of a TOR-Nrf2 signaling pathway. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 219:59–67. https://doi.org/10.1016/jcbpc201902004
Donelson JM, Sunday JM, Figueira WF et al (2019) Understanding interactions between plasticity, adaptation and range shifts in response to marine environmental change. Philos Trans R Soc B 374(1768):20180186. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb20180186
Dugan HA, Bartlett SL, Burke SM et al (2017) Salting our freshwater lakes. Proc Natl Acad Sci 114(17):4453–4458. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas1620211114
Dugan H, Skaff NK, Doubek JP et al (2020) Lakes at risk of chloride contamination. Environ Sci Technol 54:6639–6650. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsest9b07718
Dutilleul M, Réale D, Goussen B et al (2017) Adaptation costs to constant and alternating polluted environments. Evol Appl 10(8):839–851. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva12510
Erickson RJ, Mount DR, Highland TL et al (2022) Acute Toxicity of major geochemical ions to fathead minnows (Pimephales promelas): part A-observed relationships for individual salts and salt mixtures. Environ Toxicol Chem 41(9):2078–2094. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc.5390
Fink P, Pflitsch C, Marin K (2011) Dietary essential amino acids affect the reproduction of the keystone herbivore Daphnia pulex. PLoS ONE 6(12):e28498. https://doi.org/10.1371/journalpone0028498
Fraebel DT, Mickalide H, Schnitkey D et al (2017) Environment determines evolutionary trajectory in a constrained phenotypic space. Elife 6:1–32. https://doi.org/10.7554/eLife.24669
Freitas EC, Rocha O (2011) Acute and chronic effects of sodium and potassium on the tropical freshwater cladoceran Pseudosida ramosa. Ecotoxicology 20(1):88–96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-010-0559-z
Garland T Jr, Downs CJ, Ives AR (2022) Trade-offs (and constraints) in organismal biology. Physiol Biochem Zool 95(1):82–112. https://doi.org/10.1086/717897
Ghazy MME-D, Habashy MM, Kossa FI et al (2009) Effects of salinity on survival, growth and reproduction of the water flea Daphnia Magna. Nat Sci 7(11):28–34
Gomulkiewicz R, Holt RD (1995) When does evolution by natural selection prevent extinction? Evolution 49(1):201–207. https://doi.org/10.2307/2410305
Gonçalves AMM, Castro BB, Pardal MA et al (2007) Salinity effects on survival and life history of two freshwater cladocerans (Daphnia magna and Daphnia longispina). Ann Limnol Int J Limnol 43(1):13–20. https://doi.org/10.1051/limn/2007022
Hairston NG Jr, Ellner SP, Geber MA et al (2005) Rapid evolution and the convergence of ecological and evolutionary time. Ecol Lett 8(10):1114–1127. https://doi.org/10.1111/j1461-0248200500812x
Harris KD, Bartlett NJ, Lloyd VK (2012) Daphnia as an emerging epigenetic model organism. Genet Res Int 2012:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/147892
Hintz WD, Relyea RA (2019) A review of the species, community, and ecosystem impacts of road salt salinisation in fresh waters. Freshw Biol 64:1081–1097. https://doi.org/10.1111/fwb13286
Hintz WD, Jones DK, Relyea RA (2019) Evolved tolerance to freshwater salinization in zooplankton: life-history trade-offs, cross-tolerance and reducing cascading effects. Philos Trans R Soc B 374(1764):20180012. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb20180012
Hlina BL (2021) Ecotox: analysis of ecotoxicology. R package version: 144. Retrieved January 2022 from https://cran.rproject.org/web/packages/ecotox/index.html
Hossain M, Aktar S, Qin JG (2016) Salinity stress response in estuarine fishes from the Murray Estuary and Coorong South Australia. Fish Physiol Biochem 42(6):1571–1580. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10695-016-0241-3
Iglesias MCA (2020) A review of recent advances and future challenges in freshwater salinization. Limnetica 39(1):185–211. https://doi.org/10.23818/limn3913
IPCC (2021) Climate change 2021: the physical science basis contribution of working group i to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Masson-Delmotte V, Zhai P, Pirani A, Connors SL, Péan C, Berger S, Caud N, Chen Y, Goldfarb L, Gomis MI, Huang M, Leitzell K, Lonnoy E, Matthews JBR, Maycock TK, Waterfield T, Yelekçi O, Yu R, Zhou B (eds.) Cambridge University Press, UK
Jackson MC, Pawar S, Woodward G (2021) The temporal dynamics of multiple stressor effects: from individuals to ecosystems. Trends Ecol Evol 36(5):402–410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2021.01.005
Kartashov AV, Radyukina NL, Ivanov YV et al (2008) Role of antioxidant systems in wild plant adaptation to salt stress. Russ J Plant Physiol 55(4):463–468. https://doi.org/10.1134/S1021443708040055
Kaushal SS, Likens GE, Pace ML et al (2018) Freshwater salinization syndrome on a continental scale. Proc Natl Acad Sci 115(4):E574–E583. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas1711234115
Kaushal SS, Likens GE, Pace ML et al (2021) Freshwater salinization syndrome: from emerging global problem to managing risks. Biogeochemistry 154(2):255–292. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10533-021-00784-w
Kefford BJ, Buchwalter D, Cañedo-Argüelles M et al (2016) Salinized rivers: degraded systems or new habitats for salt-tolerant faunas? Biol Lett. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl20151072
Kessler K (2004) Distribution of Daphnia in a trade-off between food and temperature: individual habitat choice and time allocation. Freshw Biol 49(9):1220–1229. https://doi.org/10.1111/j1365-2427200401260x
Kilham SS, Kreeger DA, Lynn SG et al (1998) COMBO: a defined freshwater culture medium for algae and zooplankton. Hydrobiologia 377(1):147–159. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1003231628456
Kolss M, Kawecki TJ (2008) Reduced learning ability as a consequence of evolutionary adaptation to nutritional stress in Drosophila melanogaster. Ecol Entomol 33(5):583–588. https://doi.org/10.1111/j1365-2311200801007x
Kreutzer C, Lampert W (1999) Exploitative competition in differently sized Daphnia species: a mechanistic explanation. Ecology 80(7):2348–2357. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9658(1999)080[2348:ECIDSD]2.0.CO;2
Latta LC, Weider LJ, Colbourne JK et al (2012) The evolution of salinity tolerance in Daphnia: a functional genomics approach. Ecol Lett 15(8):794–802. https://doi.org/10.1111/j1461-0248201201799x
Lawson L, Jackson DA (2021) Salty summertime streams—road salt contaminated watersheds and estimates of the proportion of impacted species. FACETS 6:317–333. https://doi.org/10.1139/facets-2020-0068
Lee WK, Lee HA, Lim YH et al (2016) Added effect of heat wave on mortality in Seoul Korea. Int J Biometeorol 60(5):719–726. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-015-1067-x
Liu M, Liao H, Peng S (2019) Salt-tolerant native plants have greater responses to other environments when compared to salt-tolerant invasive plants. Ecol Evol 9:7808–7818. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece35368
Maklakov AA, Chapman T (2019) Evolution of ageing as a tangle of tradeoffs energy versus function. Proc R Soc B 286(45):78. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb20191604
Marquis O, Miaud C, Ficetola GF et al (2009) Variation in genotoxic stress tolerance among frog populations exposed to UV and pollutant gradients. Aquat Toxicol 95(2):152–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/jaquatox200909001
Mazumder B, Wellen C, Kaltenecker G et al (2021) Trends and legacy of freshwater salinization: untangling over 50 years of stream chloride monitoring. Environ Res Lett 16(9):1–14. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/ac1817
Miner BE, De Meester L, Pfrender ME et al (2012) Linking genes to communities and ecosystems: Daphnia as an ecogenomic model. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 279(1735):1873–1882. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb20112404
Moe SJ, De Schamphelaere K, Clements WH et al (2013) Combined and interactive effects of global climate change and toxicants on populations and communities. Environ Toxicol Chem 32(1):49–61. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc2045
Mottola G, Nikinmaa M, Anttila K (2020) Hsp70s transcription-translation relationship depends on the heat shock temperature in zebrafish. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol. https://doi.org/10.1016/jcbpa2019110629
Nadeau CP, Urban MC (2019) Eco-evolution on the edge during climate change. Ecography 42(7):1280–1297. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecog04404
Novotny EV, Stefan HG (2010) Projections of chloride concentrations in urban lakes receiving road de-icing salt. Water Air Soil Pollut 211:261–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-009-0297-0
Orr JA, Luijckx P, Arnoldi JF et al (2022) Rapid evolution generates synergism between multiple stressors: linking theory and an evolution experiment. Glob Change Biol 28(5):1740–1752. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb15633
Oswald CJ, Giberson G, Nicholls E et al (2019) Spatial distribution and extent of urban land cover control watershed-scale chloride retention. Sci Total Environ 652:278–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/jscitotenv201810242
Pansch C, Scotti M, Barboza FR et al (2018) Heat waves and their significance for a temperate benthic community: a near-natural experimental approach. Glob Change Biol 24:4357–4367. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb14282
Pastore AI, Prather CM, Gornish ES et al (2014) Testing the competition-colonization trade-off with a 32-year study of a saxicolous lichen community. Ecology 95(2):306–315. https://doi.org/10.1890/13-02531
Plesnar-Bielak A, Jawor A, Kramarz PE (2013) Complex response in size-related traits of bulb mites (Rhizoglyphus robini) under elevated thermal conditions–an experimental evolution approach. J Exp Biol 216(24):4542–4548. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb.090951
R Core Team (2021) R: A language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria
Rahimi G, Karimi F (2016) The prolonged effect of salinity on growth and/or survival of earthworm Eisenia fetida. Int J Environ Waste Manage 18(1):58–67. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEWM2016080263
Ribeiro R, Lopes I (2013) Contaminant driven genetic erosion and associated hypotheses on alleles loss, reduced population growth rate and increased susceptibility to future stressors: an essay. Ecotoxicology 22(5):889–899. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10646-013-1070-0
Rice MJ, Jones CL, Starke CW et al (2021) Calcium stress in Daphnia pulicaria and exposure to predator-derived cues: making a bad situation worse? Freshw Sci 40(3):449–462. https://doi.org/10.1086/716029
Ritz C, Strebig JC (2016) drc: Analysis of dose-response curves. R package version: 3.0–1. Retrieved January 2022 from https://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/drc/drc.pdf
Robinson PJ (2001) On the definition of a heat wave. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 40(4):762–775. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2001)040%3c0762:OTDOAH%3e20CO;2
Rogora M, Mosello R, Kamburska L et al (2015) Recent trends in chloride and sodium concentrations in the deep subalpine lakes (Northern Italy). Environ Sci Pollut Res 22(23):19013–19026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-5090-6
Sairam RK, Rao KV, Srivastava GC (2002) Differential response of wheat genotypes to long term salinity stress in relation to oxidative stress, antioxidant activity and osmolyte concentration. Plant Sci 163(5):1037–1046. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-9452(02)00278-9
Salo T, Pedersen MF, Boström C (2014) Population specific salinity tolerance in eelgrass (Zostera marina). J Exp Mar Biol Ecol 461:425–429. https://doi.org/10.1016/jjembe201409010
Samani P, Bell G (2010) Adaptation of experimental yeast populations to stressful conditions in relation to population size. J Evol Biol 23(4):791–796. https://doi.org/10.1111/j1420-9101201001945x
Sarma SSS, Nandini S, Morales-Ventura J et al (2006) Effects of NaCl salinity on the population dynamics of freshwater zooplankton (rotifers and cladocerans). Aquat Ecol 40(3):349–360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10452-006-9039-1
Schoetter R, Cattiaux J, Douville H (2015) Changes of western European heat wave characteristics projected by the CMIP5 ensemble. Clim Dyn 45(5):1601–1616. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00382-014-2434-8
Shea N, Pen I, Uller T (2011) Three epigenetic information channels and their different roles in evolution. J Evol Biol 24(6):1178–1187. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2011.02235.x
Shenton MD, Nichols SJ, Bray JP et al (2022) The effects of road de-icing salts on water quality and macroinvertebrates in Australian alpine areas. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 82(2):266–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-021-00827-1
Sorichetti RJ, Raby M, Holeton C et al (2022) Chloride trends in Ontario’s surface and groundwaters. J Great Lakes Res 48(2):512–525. https://doi.org/10.1016/jjglr202201015
Stillman JH (2019) Heat waves, the new normal: Summertime temperature extremes will impact animals, ecosystems, and human communities. Physiology 34(2):86–100. https://doi.org/10.1152/physiol000402018
Stillman JH, Paganini AW (2015) Biochemical adaptation to ocean acidification. J Exp Biol 218(12):1946–1955. https://doi.org/10.1242/jeb115584
Stoks R, Geerts AN, De Meester L (2014) Evolutionary and plastic responses of freshwater invertebrates to climate change: realized patterns and future potential. Evol Appl 7(1):42–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva12108
Sun X, Arnott SE (2022) Interactive effects of increased salinity and heatwaves on freshwater zooplankton communities in simultaneous and sequential treatments. Freshw Biol 67(9):1604–1617. https://doi.org/10.1111/fwb13964
Teschner M (1995) Effects of salinity on the life history and fitness of Daphnia magna: variability within and between populations. In: Cladocera as model organisms in biology. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 33–41. Retrieved March 2022 from https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-011-0021-2_5
Todgham AE, Schulte PM, Iwama GK (2005) Cross-tolerance in the tidepool sculpin: the role of heat shock proteins. Physiol Biochem Zool 78(2):133–144. https://doi.org/10.1086/425205
Urban MC, Bocedi G, Hendry AP et al (2016) Improving the forecast for biodiversity under climate change. Science. https://doi.org/10.1126/scienceaad8466
Velasco J, Gutierrez-Canovas C, Botella-Cruz M et al (2019) Effects of salinity changes on aquatic organisms in a multiple stressor context. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 374:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb20180011
Verberk WC, Atkinson D, Hoefnagel KN et al (2021) Shrinking body sizes in response to warming: explanations for the temperature–size rule with special emphasis on the role of oxygen. Biol Rev 96(1):247–268. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv12653
Vereshchagina KP, Lubyaga YA, Shatilina Z et al (2016) Salinity modulates thermotolerance, energy metabolism and stress response in amphipods Gammarus lacustris. PeerJ. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj2657
Visser ME (2008) Keeping up with a warming world; assessing the rate of adaptation to climate change. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 275(1635):649–659. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb20070997
Wagner ND, Simpson AJ, Simpson MJ (2017) Metabolomic responses to sublethal contaminant exposure in neonate and adult Daphnia magna. Environ Toxicol Chem 36(4):938–946. https://doi.org/10.1002/etc3604
Walczyńska A, Gudowska A, Sobczyk Ł (2021) Zooplankton body size is filtered by a thermo-oxygenic niche at the regional scale. J Biogeogr 48(12):2981–2988. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi14276
Wersebe MJ, Weider LJ (2022) Resurrection genomics provides molecular and phenotypic evidence of rapid adaptation to salinization in a keystone aquatic species. BioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.22.501152
Williams GC (1957) Pleiotropy, natural selection, and the evolution of senescence. Evolution 11(4):398–411. https://doi.org/10.1111/j1558-56461957tb02911x
Woolway RI, Jennings E, Shatwell T et al (2021) Lake heatwaves under climate change. Nature 589:402–407. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-03119-1
Acknowledgements
We thank Shuhong Shi and Jonathon Gow for their help in the field and laboratory. Support for researchers was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC; S.E. Arnott) and a Craigie Fellowship (X. Sun).
Funding
This work was funded by Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) [grant number RGPIN-2019–04315]. X. Sun was supported by a Craigie Fellowship and received an International Tuition Award.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Both XS and SE. Arnott contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection, and analyses were performed by XS. The first draft of the manuscript was written by XS. Both authors contributed to the review and editing of previous versions of the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
Ethics approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
Not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Sun, X., Arnott, S.E. Evolved tolerance to NaCl does not alter Daphnia response to acute heat stress. Evol Ecol 37, 345–361 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10682-022-10220-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10682-022-10220-6