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A phytoplankton risk matrix: combining health, treatment, and aesthetic considerations in drinking water supplies

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Abstract

Worldwide, the risk profile of drinking water supplies is uniquely shaped by differing geology, climate, and human-based developmental practices. The World Health Organisation’s Water Safety Plans (WSPs) are designed to improve the quality of water supplies, particularly regional supplies. One advantage of WSPs is that they are water supply-specific, thus reflecting local conditions; however, WSPs are also limited by a sole focus on health risks, with a little reference to treatment or aesthetic risks such as filter clogging and taste and odour complaints. Appropriately managing these non-health risks is important in effective infrastructure management and in developing consumer trust; however, currently, there is a lack of practical techniques to enable water managers to identify and respond to the threefold-risk profile (health, treatment, and aesthetic) that exists in all regional water supplies. To address this, phytoplankton concentration and bio-volume data were analysed from freshwater samples collected over 2 years, from an ephemeral subtropical catchment in Central Queensland, Australia. This study investigated the temporal and spatial patterns of phytoplankton, as influenced by flow events. Based on field data, a semi-quantitative risk matrix methodology was developed for use as a supplement to the existing WSPs and allows a more comprehensive assessment of phytoplankton-based hazards related to health, treatment (e.g., clogging) and aesthetic risks for individual water supplies. For example, the primary risk identified for the studied catchment was the presence of Cyanobacteria in the pre-chlorinated supply chain immediately prior to entering the treatment plant, specifically Limnothrix redekei. Modelling of the data within these risk matrices demonstrates that the approach is useful in identifying overall catchment risks as well being applied for seasonal and event-based risk assessment of regional drinking water supplies.

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Acknowledgements

Appreciation is given to Amie Anastasi, Christopher O’Neill, Tieneke Trotter, Mark Trotter, Neville Doyle, and Daniel Cozzolino for their willingness to partake in constructive conversation about the results and implications of the findings in this study. Special thanks go to Kevin Jeffery for the assistance with data collection and local knowledge. Importantly, we thank the Gladstone Regional Council for funding the research. The authors declare that they have no actual or potential competing financial interests.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, North Rockhampton, QLD, Australia

    Adam K. Rose & Larelle Fabbro

  2. Research Division, Central Queensland University, North Rockhampton, QLD, Australia

    Susan Kinnear

  3. College of Food, Agricultural, and Environmental Sciences, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA

    James E. Kinder

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  1. Adam K. Rose
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There is no conflict of interest. The Gladstone Regional Council did not have any input on the design, collection, analysis, and interpretation of data or in writing of the manuscript, and did not have any part in the decision to submit with the journal of Environment Systems and Decisions.

Appendix A

Appendix A

 

Potential toxin

Potential taste/odour chemical

Taste odour description

Cyanobacteriaa

Microcystins, anatoxin-a, anatoxin-a(s), saxitoxins, cylindrospermopsin, lipopolysaccharides

Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), geosmin, dimethyl sulfide (DMS), 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one, β-ionone, geraniol, nerol

Earthy/musty/camphorous, violets/fruity, grassy, septic, fruity/ester-like, earthy/musty, cabbage/sulphurous, sweet/floral/rose/waxy/citrus, natural/neroli/Magnolia

Chrysosporum sp. (Aphanizomenon sp.)

Anatoxin-a, saxitoxins, cylindrospermopsin, lipopolysaccharides

Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), geosmin, β-ionone

Earthy/musty/camphorous, violets/fruity, grassy, septic

Dolichospermum sp.a (Anabaena sp.)

Microcystins, anatoxin-a, anatoxin-a(s), saxitoxins, cylindrospermopsin, lipopolysaccharides

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one, 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), geosmin, β-ionone

Fruity/ester-like, earthy/musty/camphorous, earthy/musty, violets/fruity, grassy, septic

Pseudanabaena sp.

Lipopolysaccharides

2-Methylisoborneol (MIB), geosmin

Earthy/musty/camphorous

Limnothrix sp.

Unidentified toxins lipopolysaccharides

  

Leiblenia sp.

Lipopolysaccharides

  

Aphanocapsa sp.

Lipopolysaccharides, microcystins

  

Aphanothece sp.

Lipopolysaccharides

  

Planktolyngbya sp.

Lipopolysaccharides

  

Synechococcus sp.

Lipopolysaccharides

Dimethyl sulfide (DMS), 6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one, β-Ionone, Geraniol, Nerol

Cabbage/sulphurous, fruity/ester-like, violets, sweet /floral/rose/waxy/citrus, natural/neroli/Magnolia

Merismopedia sp.

Lipopolysaccharides

  

Coeloshaerium sp.

Lipopolysaccharides

  

Snowella sp.

Lipopolysaccharides

  

Nostochopsis sp.

Lipopolysaccharides

  

Gleocapsa sp.

Lipopolysaccharides

  

Rhabdoderma sp

Lipopolysaccharides

  

Bacillariophytaa

NA

Dimethyl sulfide (DMS), dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), geosmin, saturated aldehydes, (E,Z)-1,3,5-octatriene, dictyopterene A, 6-methyl-5-hepten-2-one

Earthy/musty/camphorous, cabbage/sulphurous, spicy, fishy, geranium, fruity/ester-like, tomato-leaf like, geranium, cucumber, violet, septic

Asterionella sp.a

NA

Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), (E,Z)-1,3,5-octatriene

Cabbage/sulphurous, spicy, fishy, geranium

Aulacoseira sp.a

NA

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one

Fruity/ester-like

Cyclotella sp.a

NA

Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), geosmin, saturated aldehydes

Earthy/musty/camphorous, fishy

Diatoma sp.a

NA

Dimethyl sulfide (DMS)

Cabbage/sulphurous

Gomphonema sp.

NA

Ectocarpene, dictyopterene A

Tomato-leaf like

Melosira sp.a

NA

Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), geosmin, saturated aldehydes

Earthy/musty/camphorous, geranium

Nitzschia sp.a

Domoic acid

Dimethyl sulfide (DMS)

Cabbage/sulphurous

Synedra sp.a

NA

Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), geosmin, saturated aldehydes

Earthy/musty/camphorous

Dinophytaa

NA

 

Cucumber, rancid/fishy

Peridinium sp.a

NA

2,4-Decadienal

Rancid/fishy

Euglenophytaa

NA

 

Fishy

Euglena sp.

NA

 

Fishy

Trachelomonas sp.a

NA

  

Cryptophyta

NA

Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), geosmin, saturated aldehydes

Earthy/musty/camphorous

Cryptomonas sp.

NA

Dimethyl disulfide (DMDS), 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), geosmin, saturated aldehydes

Earthy/musty/camphorous

Chrysophyta

NA

2,4-Decadienal

Violet, rancid/fishy

Mallomonas sp.

NA

2,4-Decadienal

Rancid/fishy

Chlorophyta

NA

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one, β-cyclocitral, β-Ionone, geranylacetone 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), geosmin, dimethyl sulfide (DMS)

Earthy/musty/camphorous

Chlamydomonas sp.

NA

Dimethyl sulfide (DMS)

Cabbage/sulphurous, fishy, septic

Scenedesmus sp.

NA

6-Methyl-5-hepten-2-one, β-cyclocitral, β-ionone, geranylacetone

Fruity/ester-like, tobacco/smoky/mouldy, violets, fresh/green/waxy/rose/woody/magnolia/tropical

  1. Table based on references from Lin (1977), Jüttner and Müller (1979), Jüttner (1979, 1984), Hawkins et al. (1985), Jüttner et al. (1986), Bates et al. (1989), Terrell and Perfetti (1991), Ando et al. (1992), Baker and Humpage (1994), Sivonen (1996), Wendel and Jüttner (1996), Jüttner and Dürst (1997), Chorus and Bartram (1999), Durrer et al. (1999), Miralto et al. (1999), Zimba et al. (1999), Chorus et al. (2000), Tucker (2000), Hitzfeld et al. (2000), Baker et al. (2001), Jun et al. (2001), Watson et al. (2001), Watson (2003), Watson and Satchwlll (2003), Paterson et al. (2004), Codd et al. (2005), Humpage (2008), Bigham et al. (2009), Bernard et al. (2011), Joh et al. (2011), Wert and Rosario-Ortiz (2013), Zamyadi et al. (2013), Daniels et al. (2014), Wang et al. (2015), Li et al. (2016), Komárek (2016), Buratti et al. (2017), Lee et al. (2017) and Preece et al. (2017)
  2. aFilter clogging phytoplankton

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Rose, A.K., Kinder, J.E., Fabbro, L. et al. A phytoplankton risk matrix: combining health, treatment, and aesthetic considerations in drinking water supplies. Environ Syst Decis 39, 163–182 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-018-9711-8

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