1 Introduction

Tourism industry provides travelers with immersive experiences at travel destinations, crafting indelible memories, stirring emotions, engaging the senses, and inspiring minds (Song et al., 2015a, b). In the past decade, tourism research has highlighted individual and contextual factors that foster travelers’ environmental consciousness (Liu et al., 2016). Environmental awareness is highly associated with sustainable tourism development, contributing significantly to regions’ economic development (Zhang & Lei, 2012; Gunter et al., 2017). Further, eco-tourism is also part of sustainable tourism development, which conserves resources and sustains environment by reducing the negative impacts (Snyman, 2017). The crucial role of eco-tourism is to promote sustainable resource utilization and the development of diverse communities (Jeong et al., 2021).

Eco-tourism is often viewed as the economic validation of resource conservation and provides a straightforward concept for the community and stakeholders to grasp sustainable tourism (Sultan et al., 2021). Sustainable tourism encompasses all activities aimed at minimizing the environmental impact, promoting environmental awareness, and enhancing the authenticity of the tourism experience (Santos-Roldán et al., 2020). Furthermore, environmental awareness in tourism activities increases with the satisfaction of tourist destinations. Also, emotional excitement leads to higher satisfaction with the tourist destination (Liu et al., 2016). Therefore, as a multidimensional variables (place dependence, place identity, place affect, and place social bonding) of tourism destination attachment significantly influence tourist satisfaction and quality of life (Ramkissoon et al., 2013).

However, the natural heritages of developing and underdeveloped nations face significant threats from various hazards stemming from unplanned tourism development, including environmental, sociocultural, and fragile ecosystem challenges. Other reasons include coastal environment destruction, waste disposal, declining traditional agricultural values, and shifting from fisheries to tourism. These hazards profoundly affect residents’ cultural heritage and identity (Hsu et al., 2020). Han et al. (2016) found that climate change significantly impacts adverse environmental pressure on nature-based tourism. Cheng and Wu (2015) pointed out that environmental knowledge plays an essential role in fostering environmentally responsible behavior (ERB), helping tourists understand the environment, and encouraging them to protect the environment (Lee et al., 2019). Moreover, nature-based tourism activities enhance tourists’ awareness of ERB and contribute to eco-tourism (Lee et al., 2015). Han et al. (2016) specified that climate change perceptions and tourist experiences influence tourists’ ERB intentions for Korean tourists. Many researchers (Cheng et al., 2018; Mohammed et al., 2020; Ramseook-Munhurrun et al., 2015; Ngurah et al., 2017) have discussed the relationship between tourist satisfaction (TS) and environmentally responsible behavior (ERB). The relationships among satisfaction, loyalty, ERB, and environmental commitment have yet to be studied using the same conceptual model. However, there is still a research gap on tourist satisfaction, tourist destination loyalty, tourist environmental commitment, and tourist environmentally responsible behavior using a single model. Further, Bangladesh has yet to explore the relationship between tourist satisfaction, loyalty, ERB, and environmental commitment. Consequently, it is important to do further research on improving tourist satisfaction and increasing tourist environmental awareness.

Additionally, we examine how perceived value, environmental value, and employee service quality (ESQ) impact tourist satisfaction, loyalty, and environmental awareness.

In our study, we will identify the key factors affecting tourist satisfaction and tourist environmental awareness in Sundarbans. Therefore, our study contributes to the existing literature by filling this research gap. To achieve these objectives, we attempt to answer the following questions: (1) What are the main factors of perceived value influencing tourist satisfaction (TS)? (2) How do environmental value and ESQ impact TS? (3) How does TS impact loyalty, ERB, and environmental commitment?

This study significantly contributes to theoretical, practical, and policy insights, supporting the cultivation of a sustainable tourist environment and enhancing the overall experience for visitors within the mangrove forest. This research provides opportunities for tourism practitioners, marketers, and policymakers to improve environmental conditions at tourist destinations in Bangladesh.

This study represents a pioneering effort to assess tourists’ satisfaction, loyalty, and environmental awareness in the Sundarbans mangrove forest, a UNESCO World Heritage site. We extend the theory of consumption value (TCV) model by integrating environmental value and ESQ, while measuring the environmental awareness of tourists’ ERB and environmental commitment. This paper comprises seven sections, sequentially covering a literature review, methods, results, discussion, implications, and conclusion.

2 Literature review

2.1 Theoretical background

Theory of consumption value (TCV), developed by (Sheth et al., 1991), has been extensively explored in marketing, tourism, and consumer behavior. TCV emphasizes consumption values that explain ‘why consumers choose to buy/use or not to buy/ use a specific product, and why they prefer one product type over another’ (Sheth et al., 1991; Gonçalves et al., 2016). Consumers choose services based on perceived benefits (Khan & Mohsin, 2017). TCV suggests that consumers emphasize various values of products or services, which influence their purchasing motives. Consumption values denote significance consumers attribute to products or services (Sin & Yau, 2001). Earlier research has employed this concept to explain a wide range of consumer decision behavior across various fields, including sociology, economics, marketing, psychology, and so on (Awuni & Du, 2016). It also applies to a variety of tangible and intangible services (Chakraborty et al., 2022; Abbasi et al., 2023), e.g., tourism services, hotel services (Park & Rabolt, 2009; Nekmahmud et al., 2022), and healthcare services (Chakraborty & Paul, 2023). Sheth et al. (1991) classified five consumption values- functional, social, emotional, epistemic, and conditional value- that substantially influence consumer preference and purchase decisions. For instance, tourists may visit a new destination because they feel they will gain social value by impressing others after the tour. In contrast, other tourists may choose services like quality food and service at tourist spots because of their functional values, e.g., economics, convenience, value of money, and quality (Nekmahmud et al., 2022). Additionally, consumer purchase decisions are influenced by various dimensions, including enjoyment, social factors, service quality, financial value, and trade-offs (Awuni & Du, 2016).

In the tourism sector, TCV is applied to understand consumer purchase behavior regarding hotels and restaurants (Zaitouni & Murphy, 2023), green products (Nekmahmud et al., 2022), and visiting tourist places (Abdullah et al., 2019). In this research, we extend the TCV by incorporating new variables, e.g., environmental value, employee service quality, and ERB, to measure tourists’ environmental awareness when visiting the UNESCO WHS Mangrove Forest. We also investigate the quality dimensions of the conceptual model, which including tourist satisfaction, environmental commitment, and loyalty. We consider the TCV model as suitable for tourist destinations due to its multidimensional structure, evaluates consumer value in the hospitality and tourism field. On the other hand, the TCV model has yet to be applied to the context of tourism destinations in Bangladesh. Therefore, we examine how perceived values (functional, social, emotional, and conditional), environmental values, and ESQ influence tourist satisfaction, consequently affecting tourist loyalty, ERB, and environmental commitment.

2.2 Hypotheses and research model development

2.2.1 Perceived value and satisfaction

In consumer behavior, perceived value is a well-known concept representing the overall evaluation of a product’s utility (Kumar & Pansari, 2015; Song et al., 2015a, b; Ngurah et al., 2017). Perceived value is often seen as a function of a product’s price, where the concept of ‘value for money’ is regarded as the key determinant (Gallarza & Saura, 2006). Williams and Soutar (2009) identified functional value, emotional value, financial value, social value, and the value of novelty as essential dimensions of perceived value in tourism, significantly impacting tourist satisfaction. Also, Jamal et al. (2011) specified some dimensions of perceived value in tourism, such as functional value (price & establishment), experiential value (host-guest interaction, culture, activity, and knowledge), and emotional value. Scholars have extensively examined how perceived values impact on various contexts of tourist’s post-purchase behavior, behavioral intention, satisfaction, and loyalty (e.g., Jamal et al., 2011; Kim & Thapa, 2018). Moreover, several research studies have employed multidimensional metrics to evaluate the perceived value of different tourism products and services (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2016; Kim & Park, 2017). Tourist satisfaction is a favorable perception or sensation from participating in a particular tourism activity (Che et al., 2021). Tourist satisfaction is a crucial metric for evaluating the on-site experience during their tours (Lee et al., 2015; Guo et al., 2021). Factors like time, effort expended, and initial expectations can significantly impact overall satisfaction (Kim & Park, 2017). In the tourism industry, customer happiness is the most crucial factor shaping the success or failure of a company. Tourist expectations, primarily based on destination impressions and perceived value for tourists, are closely linked to satisfaction (Campón-Cerro et al., 2017). For example, a study in Malaysia’s Lenggong Valley WHS found that perceived value strongly affects homestay guest satisfaction (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2016). Similarly, in China’s Kaiping Diaolou and Villages, UNESCO research indicated that perceived value and the Diaolou village experience positively influence tourists’ satisfaction and intention to revisit (Zhang et al., 2022). Perceived value significantly influences tourist satisfaction and loyalty at the WHS Mahabalipuram, India (Verma & Rajendran, 2017). Therefore, we propose that perceived value (functional, social, and emotional) significantly influences tourist satisfaction:

H1

Functional value at a destination positively affects tourist satisfaction.

H2

Social value at a destination positively affects tourist satisfaction.

H3

Emotional value at a destination positively affects tourist satisfaction.

2.2.2 Environmental value and satisfaction

Previous research focused on environmental values in a broad area such as social psychology, marketing, and political science (Burningham & O’Brien, 1994; Dietz et al., 2005). Prior studies have also explored environmental values within sustainable and eco-tourism contexts (e.g., Miller et al., 2010; Vermeersch et al., 2016). However, more research must be done on environmental values within the tourism context, especially in developing countries. Thus, we consider environmental values within sustainable tourist destinations and investigate how these environmental values influence tourist satisfaction. Uriely et al. (2007) stated that effectively integrating ecological values at tourism destinations involves aligning with consumer wants and a dedicated ideological commitment to environmental preservation. When tourists perceive a destination to offer high environmental value such as natural beauty, ecological conservation, and sustainable practices, it is anticipated that these environmental values will positively influence tourists’ overall satisfaction at the destination (Vermeersch et al., 2016). Several factors contribute to this expected positive relationship. For example, a destination’s commitment to environmental conservation may enhance its appeal, attracting environmentally conscious tourists who derive satisfaction from supporting sustainable practices (Poudel & Nyaupane, 2017; Sahabuddin et al., 2021). Moreover, a destination’s aesthetic and recreational aspects, shaped by its environmental features, can positively impact tourists’ overall satisfaction (Demir et al., 2021). Understanding environmental value is essential in studying sustainable lifestyles, quality of life, and consumption patterns (Chen, 2014; Biswas, 2017). Therefore, we propose that environmental values significantly influence tourist satisfaction at the destination:

H4

Environmental value at a destination positively affects tourist satisfaction.

2.2.3 Employee service quality and satisfaction

Scholars and policymakers stated that employee service quality (ESQ) explores its relationship with satisfaction (Spreng & Mackoy, 1996; He et al., 2018; Hasan et al., 2020). ESQ is commonly regarded as a precursor of consumer satisfaction (Chiu et al., 2014), and it has also been linked to overall service quality. In service marketing, ESQ is emphasized as institutions must create a conducive service environment and maintain excellent service quality to ensure better tourist satisfaction (Song et al., 2015). He et al. (2011) demonstrated that better service quality significantly contributes to environmental commitment. Similarly, in their study, He et al. (2018) revealed that service quality affects value perceptions, positively influencing tourists’ ERB and commitment. Wan & Cheng (2011) showed high visitor satisfaction with Macao’s WHS but suggested improvements in empathy and consumables. Also, Sahabuddin et al. (2021) found a positive and strong association between ESQ and tourist satisfaction at Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, the world’s longest natural sea beach. Thus, we postulate the following hypothesis:

H5

Employee service quality at a destination positively affects on tourist satisfaction.

2.2.4 Satisfaction, loyalty, and environmentally responsible behavior and environment commitment

Tourist satisfaction (TS) is one of the most potent stimuli for visitors to return to the destination. The connection between tourist satisfaction and loyalty has been firmly established and is substantiated by several empirical and theoretical studies (Yusliza et al., 2020; Hernandez-Rojas et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021). Recently, Wang and Kang (2019) specified that tourist satisfaction influences their inclination to engage in pro-environmental behavior. Thus, individual tourists’ environmental concerns significantly affect life satisfaction (Chiu et al., 2014; Han et al., 2016).

Tourist satisfaction positively influences loyalty to the destination (Tsoukatos & Rand, 2006; Hussain et al., 2023). In the context of WHS, tourist satisfaction significantly influences loyalty to the destination, as evidenced by studies on WHS in Córdoba, Spain (del Río et al., 2020) and China (Su et al., 2017). Satisfaction impacts tourists’ environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) differently (Cheng et al., 2018). Satisfaction leads to positive ERB (Mohammed et al., 2020) and commitment (Sahabuddin et al., 2021). Satisfaction impacts tourist loyalty and significantly affects the selection of alternative tourist destinations (Hutchinson et al., 2009). Dissatisfaction often prompts tourists to opt for alternative tourist destinations. Understanding tourist environmental behavior is critical for maintaining the eco-tourism system.

Tourist satisfaction significantly impacts environmental commitment (Pan & Liu, 2018; Su et al., 2020). Tourists’ highly satisfying experiences at a destination positively influence their commitment to environmental conservation. The enjoyment and satisfaction of the travel experience may enhance tourists’ willingness to engage in ERB, which promotes environmental sustainability at the destination. A positive and satisfying travel experience can cultivate a stronger sense of responsibility, commitment, and concern for the environment among tourists (Su et al., 2020). Hence, we postulate the following hypotheses:

H6

Tourists’ satisfaction at a destination positively impacts on loyalty.

H7

Tourists’ satisfaction at a destination positively impacts ERB.

H8

Tourists’ satisfaction at a destination positively impacts environmental commitment.

2.2.5 Environmental commitment and environmentally responsible behavior

Tourism industry’s contribution to the economy has been steadily expanding, yet its adverse effects also impact the natural environment. As a result, ERB toward nature is essential for safeguarding the environment. The influence of ERB on eco-tourism and the preservation of the natural environment is immensely significant (Handriana & Ambara, 2016; Nekmahmud & Fekete-Farkas, 2020; Poudel & Nyaupane, 2017). ERB encompasses conserving the natural environment, minimizing local environmental interference, voluntarily reducing or abstaining from visiting a destination during its environmental recovery, and undertaking measures to alleviate damage to specific destinations. Recycling, energy conservation, green consumption, and political engagement on environmental issues are all environmentally responsible actions (Han et al., 2016; Manisha et al., 2023). Thus, ERB reflects a positive attitude toward tourism’s environmental commitment, ultimately leading to sustainable tourism (Cheng & Wu, 2015). Also, ERB is interconnected with other crucial factors of sustainable tourism, including environmental commitment, perceived value, and service quality (Sahabuddin et al., 2021). A study (Lee, 2011) concluded that environmental commitment significantly influences ERB. Hence, we postulate the following hypotheses:

H9

Environmental commitment has a significant relationship with ERB.

From the discussion, we have synthesized that the sub-dimensions of perceived value (functional, social, emotional, and conditional), environmental value, and ESQ significantly influence tourist satisfaction. In contrast, tourist satisfaction will also strongly influence tourists to increase loyalty, ERB, and environmental commitment. Further, environmental commitment influences the improvement of ERB, as underpinnings are discussed in Fig. 1.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Conceptual framework of tourist satisfaction and environmental awareness

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3 Methodology

3.1 Research area and data collection

This study has been conducted on the world’s largest mangrove forest, Sundarbans, in the southwestern region of Bangladesh, specifically the Khulna Division. Sundarbans is one of the most extensive forests, and it was recognized by UNESCO as the most famous World Natural Heritage Site in 1997. Figure 2 presents the map of Bangladesh and the mangrove forest, Sundarbans.

We developed a survey questionnaire to collect data from targeted respondents with specific criteria, e.g., respondents’ age being more than 18 years and respondents having experience traveling to Sundarbans. The data collection process went through social media platforms, specifically direct communication through Facebook. Recent research has highlighted Facebook as a strong platform for online data collection, demonstrating an average response rate of 54% in prior studies (Ali et al., 2021). Judgmental sampling was utilized because of its efficiency, cost-effectiveness, and direct access to our specific target population of interest. A structured questionnaire was made based on Google Forms to collect the data from the primary source in 2022.

We distributed our questionnaire to over 1,000 respondents, leveraging social media timelines to request valid responses. Additionally, we contracted well-known individuals to ensure a diverse pool of participants. Usually, well-known persons prefer responding to a questionnaire to an unknown person. At the beginning of the questionnaire, whether they have ever visited Sundarbans or not (Yes/No). If yes, then please go to the next section. We have also found that many respondents answered our questionnaire and have not visited Sundarbans. Thus, we dropped those responses to show the real impact and implications. Following three months of survey collection, we garnered responses from 755 individuals who had visited the Sundarbans. However, finally, we identified 732 questionnaires as valid, while 23 were deemed invalid due to inaccuracies. Some respondents answered all questions with moderate responses without considering reality.

Fig. 2
figure 2

(Sources: Aziz & Paul, 2015; Banglapedia, 2021Footnote

https://en.banglapedia.org/index.php/Sundarbans,The.

)

(A) Bangladesh map highlighting the Sundarbans (B) Satellite image of the Sundarbans showing the network of rivers (C) map of the Sundarbans highlighting specific locations where various animal species inhabit rivers.

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3.2 Questionnaire design and measurement scale

The questionnaire included five demographic questions pertaining to respondents’ age, gender, education level, monthly income, and occupation. Respondents’ age and education were assessed using open-ended questions to ensure accuracy in their answers. Nevertheless, 31 items of 9 variables are adopted from well-established literature. For example, nine items of functional, social, and emotional value are adopted from previous literature (Sweeney & Soutar, 2001; Williams & Soutar, 2009). Four items of environmental value are taken from (Handriana & Ambara, 2016; Abdullah et al., 2019). Three items of employee service quality are taken from (He et al., 2018; Hutchinson et al., 2009), four items of tourist satisfaction are borrowed from (Lee et al., 2007; Su & Hsu, 2013), environmental commitment are adopted from (Davis et al., 2009; He et al., 2018), six items of environmentally responsible behavior are taken from (Cheng et al., 2013; Chiu et al., 2014) and four items of loyalty are browed from (Chen & Hu, 2010; Kim & Park, 2017). The specifics of the variable scale are outlined in Appendix A. The scales of the variables were constructed using a five-point Likert scale, with responses ranging from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”). Following a pilot test, all items exhibited a Cronbach’s alpha value exceeding 0.700. As a result, no items were removed from the questionnaire.

3.3 Statistical techniques

In our proposed model, we used the partial least squares structural equation model (PLS-SEM) to analyze and evaluate the data. PLS-SEM is suitable to analyze complicated models which include non-normal data, structural indicators, and more flexible foundations (Hair et al., 2014). In our study, we implemented the SmartPLS 3.2.3 version because of its extensive use and suitability for SEM analysis in marketing and tourism (Hair et al., 2019; Ringle et al., 2024). Many researchers in their previous research used SEM to analyze tourist satisfaction and loyalty (e.g., Ali et al., 2018; Nunkoo et al., 2020; Jaafar et al., 2015; Muntean et al., 2023). The reason to choose SmartPLS in our study is its user-friendly interface and capability to examine complex SEM-reflective and formative models (Hair et al., 2019; Sarstedt et al., 2021). We used 5000 subsamples on bootstrapping for our analysis with no sign changes and a bias-corrected and accelerated (BCa) bootstrapping confidence interval for analysis. Two-tailed testing was conducted with 95% confidence (Cheah et al., 2019).

4 Results

4.1 Demographic result

Table 1 presents the demographic variables, whereas the majority, 89.33% of respondents are male. Regarding age, the highest proportion of respondents falls, with 36.94% being between 26 and 30 years old, and 20.52% being between 31 and 35 years. 43.37% of respondents are from postgraduate and 41.04% are from undergraduate levels. This study presents remarkable information that, in most cases, private service holders and self-employed respondents are highly fascinated by tourism. Nearly 35.98% of tourists are private service holders, and 31.19% are engaged in business or self-employed. Since tourism costs money, the income range of tourists is also a significant aspect to consider. Most tourists’ monthly income ranges from 241 USD to 360 USD.

Table 1 Demography profile of tourists
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4.2 Measurement model

The PLS-SEM for latent indicators was analyzed to ensure convergent and discriminant validity by evaluating the composite reliability of individual and blocks of indicators. Table 2 presents the convergent validity’s internal consistency, reliability, and measurement.

According to Fornell and Larcker (1981), factor loadings are considered substantial if it surpass a cut-off value of 0.50. Thus, two items from the construct of ERB (ERB2, ERB3) and one item from tourist satisfaction (TS4) were eliminated due to falling below the threshold value of 0.50. Additionally, each latent construct demonstrated satisfactory reliability, surpassing the threshold level of 0.70 for composite reliability (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Results of Cronbach alpha show that constructs’ values surpass the ideal threshold of 0.700 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981) without emotional value (0.543) construct. The constructs’ composite reliabilities range from 0.766 to 0.882, with all values exceeding the minimum value of 0.7 (Hair et al., 2014) and indicating high process reliability and error-free. Moreover, all latent variables demonstrated an average variance extracted (AVE) surpassing 0.50, suggesting satisfactory convergent validity (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988).

VIF (variance inflation factor) results show values ranging from 1.088 to 1.943, all below the threshold of 5. This indicates the absence of negative effects or multicollinearity across items or predictor constructs, suggesting a structurally sound model.

Table 2 The measurement model
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Table 3 presents the diagonal entries (in bold), signifying the square root of the AVE for each construct (Hair et al., 2013). This indicates that discriminant validity is sufficient.

All HTMT ratios are below 0.85 (Henseler et al., 2015), indicating that each construct is sufficiently distinct. Thus, the measurement model confirms acceptable discriminant validity.

Table 3 The discriminant validity (Fornell-Lacker and HTMT criterion)
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4.3 Structural model and hypotheses test

The structural model was measured by evaluating (i) statistical coefficients, (ii) path coefficients, (iii) indirect effects through estimation of f2, and (iv) the Stone - Geisser test (Q2), which measures the predictive relevance of the dependent reflexive constructs (Avkiran & Ringle, 2018; Hair et al., 2019).

To fit the model, we applied the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR ¼ 0.089), which is considered satisfactory. A value less than 0.10 or, in a more conservative approach, 0.08 indicates a good model fit with the data, as suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999).

Besides, we calculate the coefficient (R2), which determines the degree of adjustment of the model and evaluate its in-sample consistency fit. The model clarifies that the R2 values of tourist loyalty (R2 Adjusted 0.306), environmental commitment (R2 Adjusted 0.290), and environmental responsibility (R2 Adjusted 0.297) of mangrove forest Sundarbans prediction contribute the most to 30% which are considered satisfactory in the behavioral science. Rasoolimanesh et al. (2016) suggest that R2 values exceeding 20% are deemed significant for tourism research.

f2 results imply that ESQ (0.087) has a medium effect on tourist satisfaction. Emotional value (0.001), environmental value (0.034), functional value (0.001), and social value (0.000) have minimal effects on tourist satisfaction. Nevertheless, tourist satisfaction significantly impacts ERB (0.429) and loyalty (0.441). ERB has a medium-sized impact on environmental commitment (0.071).

PLS utilizes the blindfolding approach for forecasting test aptitude, while Q2 accurately predicted endogenous construct values exceeding zero and deemed satisfactory (Hair et al., 2019).

Table 4 presents endogenous construct values that surpassed the ideal value of zero, such as 0.147 for tourist satisfaction, 0.05 for loyalty, 0.007 for ERB, and 0.08 for environmental commitment. Therefore, it is considered a prediction test. Therefore, the Stone-Geiger test (Q2) was determined to be methodologically valid (Chin, 1998), demonstrating a medium to large scale and exhibiting accuracy in (pseudo) out-of-sample predictions (Hair et al., 2019).

Table 4 shows that the PLS-RMSE values reached higher and smaller predictive errors than the PLS-MAE values. Therefore, the model demonstrates a moderate predictive capability for the target constructs.

Table 4 Model fit
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Table 5 shows the hypotheses testing for tourists’ pro-environmental behavior in Sundarbans. Results reveal six hypotheses are accepted, while three hypotheses are not supported. Path coefficients and t-values indicate that functional value (β = -0.019, p > 0.05), social value (β = 0.016, p > 0.05), and emotional value (β = 0.039, p > 0.05) do not exert a significant influence on tourist satisfaction on world largest mangrove forest Sundarbans. Thus, H1, H2, and H3 are not supported. Nevertheless, environmental value (β = 0.185, p < 0.001) and employee service quality (β = 0.299, p < 0.001) have shown positive impacts on tourist satisfaction. Therefore, H4 and H5 are accepted. Tourist satisfaction exhibits positive and significant effects on tourist loyalty (β = 0.554, p < 0.001), environmentally responsible behavior (β = 0.548, p < 0.001), and environmental commitment (β = 0.113, p < 0.001). So, hypotheses H6, H7, and H8 are accepted. Finally, the standardized beta coefficients reveal that environmental commitment positively relates to environmentally responsible behaviors (β = 0.266, p < 0.001). So, H9 is also supported.

Table 5 The path coefficients
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5 Discussion

We investigate factors influencing tourist satisfaction and environmental awareness of the WHS mangrove forest Sundarbans. Drawing on the TCV, we introduced a model to assess tourist satisfaction, ERB, and tourist loyalty towards the destination. Three perceived values (functional, social, emotional) and environmental values are identified to measure tourist satisfaction in the Sundarbans mangrove forest. The results of SEM suggest that Bangladeshi tourists are not satisfied with the functional, social, and emotional value. Functional is insignificantly negatively associated with tourist satisfaction. The results contradicts the earlier literature (Lee et al., 2007; Song et al., 2015a, b; Kim & Park, 2017). For example, functional, emotional, and social values significantly influence China’s WHS (Zhang et al., 2022).

Similarly, perceived value strongly enhances the satisfaction of homestay guests at Lenggong Valley, WHS in Malaysia (Rasoolimanesh et al., 2016) and WHS, Córdoba, Spain (del Río et al., 2020). However, visitors to Sundarbans are not satisfied with the price, value for money, and quality. Travelers tend to prioritize functional values like convenience and consistent service quality. Williams and Soutar (2009) found that factors such as reasonable prices, service, and perceived value for money significantly impact tourist satisfaction.

Further, findings indicate that social value has yet to be associated with tourist satisfaction in Bangladesh. This result contradicts previous findings by (Kim & Park, 2017; Williams & Soutar, 2009). A prior study by Kim and Park (2017) demonstrated that visitors in Korea prioritize social values. They are inclined to value aspects such as feeling special, social acceptance, and making a favorable impression on others.

Emotional value also has no positive relation with tourist satisfaction. According to earlier studies (Kim & Park, 2017; Lee et al., 2007), emotional values play a vital role in shaping tourist satisfaction. Positive emotions, e.g., enjoyment and happiness, play a significant role in influencing tourist satisfaction. Therefore, ecological programs should incorporate engaging elements to attract and maintain visitors’ interest. The path result shows that environmental value significantly influences tourist satisfaction because travelers are delighted with several environmental values such as cleanliness of the tourist places, good environment, safe places, and so on.

ESQ has a notable direct impact on tourist satisfaction in Sundarbans. These results with earlier research (He et al., 2018; Hutchinson et al., 2009). In Sundarbans, ESQ positively impacts tourist satisfaction. A study in Bangladesh has shown that ESQ has a significant relationship with Bangladeshi tourist satisfaction (Sahabuddin et al., 2021). Moreover, He et al. (2018) found that perceived employee quality does not positively influence tourist satisfaction in China.

Finally, our research establishes a link between tourist satisfaction, environmental commitment, ERB, and tourist loyalty. He et al. (2018) demonstrated that tourist satisfaction significantly and directly affected ERB in China. Similarly, tourist satisfaction is significantly association with ERB at Cox’s Bazar, Bangladesh, and leads to revisits of the destination. (Sahabuddin et al., 2021). Tourists are more inclined to participate in ERB if they are pleased with their experience. Tourist satisfaction positively influences destination loyalty (Chen & Chen, 2010; Kim & Park, 2017; Lee et al., 2007; Lee, 2009). For example, there is a significant correlation between tourist satisfaction and loyalty toward the world heritage site (WHS) in Córdoba, Spain (del Río et al., 2020), and China (Su et al., 2017). Kim and Park (2017) revealed that tourist satisfaction serves as a mediator in the relationship between travelers’ perceived overall value and destination loyalty.

The results also demonstrate a significant positive correlation between tourist satisfaction and environmental commitment, consistent with the earlier findings (Moliner et al., 2007). Their research finds that satisfaction with the travel agency influences the impact of satisfaction on commitment, particularly the affective dimension of commitment. On the other hand, satisfaction with the tourism package does not significantly influence commitment.

Finally, result shows that environmental commitment positively correlates with environmental responsibility (He et al., 2018). Environmental commitment exerts the most substantial overall influence on ERB. Tourists are more likely to participate in activities that contribute to preserving the natural environment at their destination (Sahabuddin et al., 2021).

6 Implications

Although this study focuses on a particular region, it has theoretical, practical, and policy implications to ensure sustainable tourism.

6.1 Theoretical implication

We applied the consumption value theory by integrating satisfaction, loyalty, and environmental awareness. Previously, most studies applied some dimensions of perceived value, e.g., functional, social, emotional, conditional, and epistemic value, where environmental value was ignored. Therefore, this study extends perceived value by adding environmental values and employee service quality, which helps to understand tourists’ environmental satisfaction and employee service quality at tourist destinations. Our proposed model connected how tourist satisfaction influences loyalty, ERB, and environmental commitment, significantly contributing to theories. Concerning theoretical implications, our study’s proposed model proves that tourist satisfaction is essential to loyalty, ERB, and environmental commitment. Our research model shows that different consumption values, e.g., functional, social, emotional, and environmental, are connected with satisfaction. Perceived and environmental values significantly influence tourists’ decision-making when choosing which destination to travel to.

Nevertheless, a significant academic implication arises from these findings, which is that ESQ positively correlates with tourist satisfaction. Finally, tourist satisfaction also dramatically influences the loyalty of tourist destinations and services. Our study findings will fill the literature gap and offer a sound theoretical framework for measuring the tourists’ overall satisfaction and environmental awareness at the destination.

6.2 Practical implication

Marketing campaigns should concentrate on perceived value aspects. Our findings confirm that functional and social value has a negative impact on tourist destinations in Sundarbans. Therefore, marketers should focus on enhancing functional value through various ways, including improving facilities, accommodation, economic services, and the value of money for visitors to experience and provide a superior guest experience. This experience includes offering polite, courteous, proactive, ready-to-help, competent, and knowledgeable employees to the tourists. The tourist will be happier if s/he is appropriately treated and gets a larger net value. Tourists visiting Sundarbans place less importance on social values, e.g., seeking social approval, feeling special, or making a favorable impression on others. Therefore, marketers should consider implementing social promotion strategies to enhance the perception of social value. Furthermore, marketers have the opportunity to offer tourists emotional value by facilitating natural and ecological experiences, as positive emotions such as enjoyment and happiness are crucial in shaping tourist satisfaction. To ensure tourist satisfaction, marketing people of tourism must continually strive to deliver good tourism experiences. Marketing managers should emphasize creating values, e.g., improving tourist guides and maintaining tangible tourist amenities (Sahabuddin et al., 2021).

It is critical to incorporate environmental values into tourism management in order to promote sustainable practices. Engaging with local communities and developing educational programmes can help to promote responsible tourism. Eco-tourism activities, as well as collaboration with NGOs and government organisations, help to conserve the environment. Monitoring systems, improvements in green infrastructure, and increased environmental awareness are critical for reducing ecological effects.

Incorporating environmental values into tourism management is critical to promoting sustainable practices. Engaging with local communities and developing educational programs can promote responsible tourism. Eco-tourism activities, as well as collaboration with NGOs and government organizations, help conserve the environment. Additionally, the tourism industry can be boosted and contribute enormously to the economy if the authorities implement the climate change mitigation strategy appropriately, adopting environmental values and improving tourist destinations’ appeal. Marketers must be concerned about captivating features to capture and maintain tourists’ interest while designing the environmental awareness program. For instance, storytelling may enrich the environmental experience and stimulate attractions (Kim & Park, 2017).

When designing tourist products and services, managers must realize the relevance of these multidimensional perceived and environmental values. Managers should enhance tourist satisfaction to foster destination loyalty and maintain a destination’s competitiveness.

6.3 Policy implication

Policymakers need to endorse the advancement of eco-tourism in alignment with fostering an eco-friendly environment for travelers. Tourists of Bangladesh need to be made aware and learn about sustainability and eco-tourism. Therefore, when they travel, they contribute to over-tourism and devastate the place (Nekmahmud & Hassan, 2021). The government should continue educating tourists about green alternatives to encourage eco-friendly behavior. The government should establish guidelines, regulations, and policies prioritizing eco-friendly practices in the tourism sector. Bangladeshi policymakers can ensure environmentally responsible tourism by implementing stringent rules tailored to the industry, including waste management and emissions controls. They should encourage businesses to obtain eco-certifications, involve local communities in decision-making, and launch environmental awareness campaigns, and contribute to rural sustainable development (Hasan, 2022; Saini et al., 2022; Hasan et al., 2023). Providing incentives for sustainable practices, monitoring compliance, and investing in green infrastructure are essential. Policies should prioritize biodiversity conservation and include capacity-building programs for industry professionals. Collaborative efforts between government, NGOs, and the private sector can create a unified approach to promote sustainable tourism, preserving natural resources and cultural heritage for long-term success.

7 Conclusions, limitations, and future direction

Moreover, our study examined how perceived value, environmental value, and ESQ impact tourist satisfaction and environmental awareness of the Sundarbans World Heritage mangrove forest. This study identified three perceived values (functional, social, and emotional value), environmental values, and employee service quality as the main factors in measuring tourist satisfaction in the Sundarbans mangrove forest based on TCV. Furthermore, this study identifies tourist satisfaction as a key factor influencing loyalty, ERB, and environmental commitment.

The results indicate that environmental value significantly influences tourist satisfaction. In addition, tourist satisfaction positively correlates with tourist loyalty, ERB, and environmental commitment to the destination, which are novel results in sustainable tourism research. Results also revealed that environmental commitment has a significant relationship with ERB. Those who firmly commit to environmental concerns are more inclined to engage in behaviors that align with environmental responsibility. It explains that individuals actively adopt sustainable practices, reduce their ecological footprint, participate in environmental conservation initiatives, and engage in responsible behaviors contributing to environmental conservation and sustainability.

This research provides opportunities for tourism practitioners and policymakers to enhance environmental conditions at tourist destinations, promoting sustainable tourism practices in Bangladesh. It underscores the need for improved environmental initiatives and collaboration between practitioners and policymakers to ensure sustainable and eco-friendly approach to tourism in the country.

There are several limitations in this study that future research should take into account. Firstly, data are gathered from Bangladeshi tourists who had already traveled to the Sundarbans. Thus, the results of other study areas can be contrasted with our current study. Further study should be conducted to compare this model to various destinations in Bangladesh. Secondly, the study’s sample size is small compared to Bangladesh’s population. Thus, future researchers need to consider large-scale data size. Future research may incorporate a specific TPB and TCV model to examine outcomes in various destination settings. Finally, we used the value consumption model in this analysis and ignored the mediator and moderator variables. So, future researchers should look into the mediator and moderator variables in our suggested model.