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Food security assessment in the light of sustainable development goals: a post-Paris Agreement era

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Abstract

Food safety, security, and sustainability are embedded in the foundational essence of several Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations (UN), such as zero hunger, gender equality, economic growth, climate action, and life on land. The SDGs' targets, global policy directions, regional endeavours (e.g. European green deal), and nationally determined contributions (NDCs) pave the path for dynamic empirical research approaches. In this study, we explore the food security dynamics of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries, emerging economies, and the sub-Saharan region through the prism of four broader domains, namely economic, environmental, social and resilience. We analyse the effects of these dimensions on food security of 52 countries through the penal data econometric method. The research analysis captures the food security outlook of the post-Paris Agreement (i.e. 2015 onward) era. The study exposes the distinct state of food security among the countries under investigation; the distinction is also evident among the developed economies of OECD, emerging economies, and sub-Saharan nations. Moreover, the study finds that food security has a statistically significant influence from all economic, environmental, social and resilience domains. The study contributes to the food security and sustainability literature, provides direction for future studies, and presents policy implications for policymakers and market practitioners.

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Data availability

All data generated or analysed during this study is obtained from the public databases the links for the databases are available in the appendix of this study.

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  1. Sumran Ali

    Present address: School of Management, School of Intellectual Property Rights, University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), Jinzhai Road 96, Hefei, 230026, Anhui Province, China

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Economic and Statistical Sciences, University of Salerno, 84084, Salerno, Italy

    Muhammad Ghufran, Luigi Aldieri, Giovanna Bimonte, Luigi Senatore & Concetto Paolo Vinci

  2. University of Hohenheim, Raum: 232, Wollgrasweg 23, 2. Stock, 70599, Hohenheim, Germany

    Andreas Pyka

  3. Vechta Institute of Sustainability Transformation in Rural Areas (VISTRA), The University of Vechta, Vechta, Germany

    Sumran Ali

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Appendices

Appendices

Financial influx (foreign direct investments in the agricultural sector and financial aid flow into the agricultural sector GDP per capita)─Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) data is collected following the International Monetary Fund's Balance of Payments Manual, Fifth Edition, BPM5, IMF 1993, the OECD's Detailed Benchmark Definition of Foreign Direct Investment,Third Edition, BMD3, OECD 1996 and the updated OECD's benchmark definition (BMD4, OECD, 2008). https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FDI.

  • The Development Flows to Agriculture (DFA) dataset relies on the OECD?s Creditor Reporting System (CRS), which provides comprehensive data on development flows from all donors to all recipients since the early 1970s. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/EA

GDP─ GDP per capita based on purchasing power parity (PPP). PPP GDP is gross domestic product converted to international dollars using purchasing power parity rates (Tables 6, 7, 8, 9, 10). An international dollar has the same purchasing power over GDP as the U.S. dollar has in the United States. GDP at purchaser's prices is the sum of gross value added by all resident producers in the economy plus any product taxes and minus any subsidies not included in the value of the products. It is calculated without making deductions for depreciation of fabricated assets or for depletion and degradation of natural resources. Data are in constant 2011 international dollars. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/MK.'

Table 6 Food Security Analysis Countries
Full size table
Table 7 Pooled regression analysis
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Table 8 Random effects (REM) estimation
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Table 9 Random effects test
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Table 10 Wald (F-test)—cross-section fixed effects
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Land utilization (under organic agriculture, the area under forest cover)─Agriculture'' area certified organic and/or in conversion to organic. Land Use domain provides information on the distribution of agricultural and forest land, and their sub-components, including irrigated areas and areas under organic agriculture, at national, regional and global levels. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/EL

  • Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 m and a canopy cover of more than 10 per cent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ (Table 11). Excludes land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban land use. Explanatory notes: • Forest land is determined both by the presence of trees and by the absence of other predominant land uses. The trees should be able to reach a minimum height of 5 m in situ • Includes areas with young trees that have not yet reached but that are expected to reach a canopy cover of 10 per cent and tree height of 5 m. It also includes areas that are temporarily unstocked owing to clear-cutting as part of a forest management practice or natural disasters, and that are expected to be regenerated within five years. Local conditions may, in exceptional cases, justify the use of a longer time frame • Includes forest roads, firebreaks and other small open areas • May include forest land in national parks, nature reserves and other protected areas, such as those of specific environmental, scientific, historical, cultural or spiritual interest • Includes windbreaks, shelter belts and corridors of trees with an area of more than 0.5 hectares and width of more than 20 m • Includes abandoned shifting cultivation land with a regeneration of trees that have, or is expected to reach, a canopy cover of 10 per cent and tree height of 5 met (Al-Omoush et al., 2023)res • Includes areas with mangroves in tidal zones, regardless of whether this area is classified as land area or not • Includes areas with bamboo and palms provided that land use, height and canopy cover criteria are met • Some agroforestry systems such as the taungya system, where crops are grown only during the first years of the forest rotation, should be classified as forest • Excludes: tree stands in agricultural production systems, such as fruit-tree plantations (→ Permanent crops), oil palm plantations, rubber and Christmas trees (→ Permanent crops) and agroforestry systems when crops are grown under tree cover https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/EL

    Table 11 Wald (F-test)—time fixed effects
    Full size table

Environmental components (use of energy in the agriculture sector and emission (pre- and post-production) from the agriculture sector, use of pesticides)─

  • It entails (gas-diesel oils, gasoline, natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, residual fuel oil, hard coal, electricity, gas-diesel oils in fisheries, residual fuel oil in fisheries and by aggregates (total energy, energy consumed in fishery and total energy without electricity) https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/GN

  • It consists the methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from crop and livestock activities, forest management and include land use and land use change processes. Data are computed at Tier 1 of the IPCC Guidelines for National greenhouse gas (GHG) Inventories (IPCC, 1996; 1997; 2000; 2002; 2006; 2014). https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/GT

  • Pesticides, covering insecticides, fungicides and bactericides (including seed treatments), herbicides, plant growth regulators, rodenticides, mineral oils, disinfectants and others. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/RFN

Social components (anaemia among women and employment of women in agricultural sector)—Anaemia among women of reproductive age refers to the combined prevalence of both non-pregnant with haemoglobin levels below 12 g/dL and pregnant women with haemoglobin levels below 11 g/dL. https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/FS

  • females employed among the total employed population in the agriculture, forestry and fishing sector which is defined in accordance to the Section A of ISIC classification. Employment comprises all persons of working age who during a specified brief period, such as one week or one day, were in the following categories: a) paid employment (whether at work or with a job but not at work) or b) self-employment (whether at work or with an enterprise but not at work). The indicators on agricultural areas provide information on the status in employment, divisions of agriculture and hours worked of the people employed in agriculture, forestry and fishing by sex and age. https://ilostat.ilo.org/topics/employment/

Resilience/ sustainability components (food production variability and conservation of plants and endangered species)—

FAOstat:https://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data

ILO: https://ilostat.ilo.org/topics/employment/

World Bank:https://data.worldbank.org/indicator

Economist intelligence unit's global food security index: https://impact.economist.com/sustainability/project/food-security-index/Index

National statistics bureaus of countries such as India, Pakistan, and China:

https://dea.gov.in/data-statistics

https://www.pbs.gov.pk/agriculture-statistics-tables

http://www.stats.gov.cn/tjsj/ndsj/2018/indexeh.htm

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Ghufran, M., Aldieri, L., Pyka, A. et al. Food security assessment in the light of sustainable development goals: a post-Paris Agreement era. Environ Dev Sustain (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-04089-w

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