Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

The contribution of charcoal production to rural livelihoods in a semi-arid area in Kenya

  • Published:
Environment, Development and Sustainability Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Forest incomes in the form of both timber and non-timber forest products are an important source of livelihood for many communities in Africa. A major forest resource is charcoal, which contributes to the livelihoods of millions across the region. While incomes from charcoal are used to meet a wide spectrum of needs within rural livelihoods, the role of charcoal production on livelihoods of small-scale producers is not well understood. Therefore, we provide an example on the importance of charcoal on livelihoods in an agropastoralist community in a semi-arid region in Kenya. Based on a household questionnaire targeting 150 charcoal and 150 non-charcoal makers, as well as focus group discussions, we assessed the determinants for participation in charcoal production and developed a household typology based on charcoal income dependence. We also determined the role of charcoal in income equalization and poverty reduction. Our study shows that charcoal contributes about 20% of the household income in the study area. Gender, land size and the number of food-scarce months are the key determinants of participation in charcoal production. Based on the poverty analysis, we conclude that even though charcoal income does not lift the producers out of poverty, it can mitigate the impacts of poverty by reducing the poverty gap and poverty severity. Based on our findings, we recommend a multipronged approach to address sustainable rural livelihoods including a more explicit acknowledgement of charcoal production as a source of rural income. We also recommend broadening of the local livelihood base and a more active management of the woodland to ensure the sustainability of the income.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. 1 US dollar = 93.5 Kenyan Shilling (December 2015).

References

  • Aabeyir, R., Adu-Bredu, S., Agyare, W. A., & Weir, M. J. C. (2016). Empirical evidence of the impact of commercial charcoal production on Woodland in the Forest-Savannah transition zone Ghana. Energy for Sustainable Development, 33, 84–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adam, O. Y., Pretzsch, J., & Pettenella, D. (2013). Contribution of Non-Timber Forest Products livelihood strategies to rural development in drylands of Sudan: Potentials and failures. Agricultural Systems, 117, 90–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2012.12.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adhikari, B., Di Falco, S., & Lovett, J. C. (2004). Household characteristics and forest dependency: Evidence from common property forest management in Nepal. Ecological Economics, 48, 245–257. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2003.08.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Afullo, A., Danga, B., Oluoch, V. O., Otieno, E., & Onyango, P. O. (2011). Mutomo area development programme evaluation report for intergrated development projects, Kitui County, Kenya. World Vision International.

  • Ainembabazi, J. H., Shively, G., & Angelsen, A. (2013). Charcoal production and household welfare in Uganda: A quantile regression approach. Environment and Development Economics, 18, 537–558. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355770x1300017x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amare, D., Mekuria, W., Wondie, M., Teketay, D., Eshete, A., & Darr, D. (2017). Wood extraction among the households of Zege Peninsula, Northern Ethiopia. Ecological Economics, 142, 177–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2017.06.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Angelsen, A., Jagger, P., Babigumira, R., Belcher, B., Hogarth, N. J., Bauch, S., et al. (2014). Environmental income and rural livelihoods: A global-comparative analysis. World Development, 64, 12–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.03.006.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Angelsen, A., & Wunder, S. (2003) Exploring the forest — Poverty link : Key concepts, issues and research implications, CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 40 Centre for International Forestry Research, Bogor, Indonesia.

  • Arnold, J. E. M., Köhlin, G., & Persson, R. (2006). Woodfuels, livelihoods, and policy interventions: Changing perspectives. World Development, 34(3), 596–611.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babulo, B., Muys, B., Nega, F., Tollens, E., Nyssen, J., Deckers, et al. (2008). Household livelihood strategies and forest dependence in the highlands of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia. Agricultural Systems, 98, 147–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2008.06.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Babulo, B., Muys, B., Nega, F., Tollens, E., Nyssen, J., Deckers, J., et al. (2009). The economic contribution of forest resource use to rural livelihoods in Tigray Northern Ethiopia. Forest Policy and Economics, 11(2), 109–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2008.10.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baumert, S., Catarina, A., Fisher, J., Vollmer, F., Ryan, C. M., Patenaude, G., et al. (2016). Charcoal supply chains from Mabalane to Maputo : Who benefits ? Energy for Sustainable Development, 33, 129–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2016.06.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Belay, M., Abegaz, A., & Bewket, W. (2015). Livelihood options of landless households and land contracts in north-west Ethiopia. Environment, Development and Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-015-9727-x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bellu, L. G., & Liberati, P. (2005). Impacts of policies on poverty: Generalised poverty gap measures. Rome: FAO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bellù, L. G., & Liberati, P. (2006). Inequality analysis: The Gini index. Rome: FAO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brink, A. B., & Eva, H. D. (2011). The potential use of high-resolution Landsat satellite data for detecting land-cover change in the Greater Horn of Africa. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 32(21), 5981–5995. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2010.499382.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Butz, R. J. (2013). Changing land management: A case study of charcoal production among a group of pastoral women in northern Tanzania. Energy for Sustainable Development, 17(2), 138–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2012.11.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, B. M., Jeffrey, S., Kozanayi, W., Luckert, M., & Mutamba, M. (2002). Household Livelihoods in Semi-Arid Regions: Options and constraints. Bogor: Center for International Forestry Research.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cavendish, W. (1999). Poverty, inequality and environmental resources : quantitative analysis of rural households. CSAE Working Paper, Pg 1–32.

  • CGK (2015). County Government of Kitui. Committee on administration and coordination of county affairs report on the visit to areas affected by insecurity in Kitui county: Mutha, Nguni, Ngomeni and Endau/Malalani wards held from 5th to 8th November 2015.

  • Chhetri, B. B. K., Larsen, H. O., & Smith-Hall, C. (2014). Environmental resources reduce income inequality and the prevalence, depth and severity of poverty in rural Nepal. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 17, 513–530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-014-9557-2.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chidumayo, E. N., & Gumbo, D. J. (2010). The dry forests and woodlands of Africa. Managing for Products and Services. London: Francis & Taylor. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781849776547.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Chidumayo, E. N., & Gumbo, D. J. (2013). The environmental impacts of charcoal production in tropical ecosystems of the world: A synthesis. Energy for Sustainable Development, 17(2), 86–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2012.07.004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chuangchang, P., Sangkhaduang, T., & Tongkumchum, P. (2016). Modelling developed land in Phuket Province of Thailand: 2000–2009. Pertanika Journal of Social Sciences & Humanities, 24(2), 795–810.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deininger, K., & Olinto, P. (2001). Rural nonfarm employment and income diversification in Colombia. World Development, 29(3), 455–465. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0305-750x(00)00106-6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dex, S. (1995). The reliability of recall data: A literature review. Bulletin of Sociological Methodology, 49, 58–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Doggart, N., & Meshack, C. (2017). The marginalization of sustainable charcoal production in the policies of a modernizing African nation. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 5, 1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, F. (1998). Household strategies and rural livelihood diversification. Journal of Development Studies, 35, 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220389808422553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eriksen, S. H., Brown, K., & Kelly, P. M. (2005). The dynamics of vulnerability: Locating coping strategies in Kenya and Tanzania. Geographical Journal, 171(4), 287–305. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4959.2005.00174.x.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, M. (2004). Household welfare and forest dependence in Southern Malawi. Environment and Development Economics, 9(2), 135–154. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355770x03001219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garekae, H., & Thakadu, O. T. (2017). Socio-economic factors influencing household forest dependency in Chobe enclave, Botswana. Ecological Processes, 6, 2–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-017-0107-3.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gazette Notice No. 936 Vol. CXX—No. 16, 2nd February 2018, Nairobi Kenya.

  • Haile, F., (1991). Women fuelwood carriers in Addis Ababa and the peri—urban forest. Report to International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and National Urban Planning Institute (NUPJ). ILO, Geneva.

  • Heubach, K., Wittig, R., Nuppenau, E., & Hahn, K. (2011). The economic importance of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) for livelihood maintenance of rural west African communities: A case study from northern Benin. Ecological Economics, 70, 1991–2001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2011.05.015.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hogarth, N. J., Belcher, B., Campbell, B., & Stacey, N. (2013). The role of forest-related income in household economies and rural livelihoods in the border-region of Southern China. World Development, 43, 111–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.10.010.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hosier, R. H. (1993). Charcoal production and environmental degradation. Energy Policy, 21(5), 491–509. https://doi.org/10.1016/0301-4215(93)90037-G.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Illukpitiya, P., & Yanagida, J. F. (2008). Role of income diversification in protecting natural forests: Evidence from rural households in forest margins of Sri Lanka. Agroforestry Systems, 74, 51–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jaetzold, R., Schmidt, H., Hornetz, B. & Shisanya, C. (2007). Natural conditions and farm management information—Part C East Kenya, Subpart C1 Eastern Province. In: Ministry of Agriculture and German Technical Cooperation (GTZ) Farm Management Handbook of Kenya, (Vol. II, pp. 1–571) Nairobi.

  • Jagger, P. (2012). Environmental income, rural livelihoods, and income inequality in western Uganda. Forests, Trees and Livelihoods, 21(2), 70–84. https://doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2012.698846.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jahnke, H.E. (1982). Livestock production systems and livestock development in Tropical Africa Kieler Wissenschaftsverlag Vauk Postfach 4403, D -2300 Kiel 1.

  • Jain, P., & Sajjad, H. (2016). Household dependency on forest resources in the Sariska Tiger Reserve (STR), India: Implications for management. Journal of Sustainable Forestry, 35, 60–74. https://doi.org/10.1080/10549811.2015.1099108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, D., Ryan, C. M., & Fisher, J. (2016). Charcoal as a diversification strategy: The flexible role of charcoal production in the livelihoods of smallholders in central Mozambique. Energy for Sustainable Development, 32, 14–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2016.02.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kamanga, P., Vedeld, P., & Sjaastad, E. (2009). Forest incomes and rural livelihoods in Chiradzulu District. Malawi. Ecological Economics, 68(3), 613–624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.08.018.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kar, S. P., & Jacobson, M. G. (2012). NTFP income contribution to household economy and related socio-economic factors: Lessons from Bangladesh. Forest Policy and Economics, 14(1), 136–142. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2011.08.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • KCDP. (2013). Kitui County development profile. Ministry of devolution and planning. Kenya: Government Printer Nairobi.

    Google Scholar 

  • KFS (2013). Analysis of the charcoal value chain in Kenya Final Report. August 2013.

  • Khundi, F., Jagger, P., Shively, G., & Sserunkuuma, D. (2011). Income, poverty and charcoal production in Uganda. Forest Policy and Economics, 13(3), 199–205. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2010.11.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiruki, H., Zanden, H. E., Gikuma-Njuru, P., & Verburg, P. H. (2017). The effect of charcoal production and other land uses on diversity, structure and regeneration of woodlands in a semi-arid area in Kenya. Forest Ecology and Management, 391, 282–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2017.02.030.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiruki, H., Zanden, H. E., Zagaria, C., & Verburg, P. H. (2019). Sustainable woodland management and livelihood options in a charcoal producing region: An agent-based modelling approach. Journal of Environmental Management. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.07.016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kiruki, H., Zanden, H. E., Ziga, M., & Verburg, P. H. (2016). Land cover change and woodland degradation in a charcoal producing semi-arid area in Kenya. Land Degradation and Development. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2545.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • KNBS (2007). Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. Basic report on the well-being in Kenya based on Kenya Intergrated Household Budget Survey - 2005/06. Nairobi: Ministry of Planning and National Development.

  • KNBS (2010). Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. The 2009 Kenya Population and housing Census. Volume 1A. Nairobi.

  • Lanjouw, P., & Ravallion, M. (1995). Poverty and Household Size. Royal Economic Society, 105(433), 1415–1434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lasage, R., Aerts, J., Mutiso, G. C. M., & de Vries, A. (2008). Potential for community based adaptation to droughts: Sand dams in Kitui, Kenya. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 33(1–2), 67–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2007.04.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lepetu, J., Alavalapati, J., & Nair, P. K. (2009). Forest dependency and its implication for protected areas management: A case study from kasane forest reserve. International Journal of Environmental Research, 3, 525–536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lerman, R. I., & Yitzhaki, S. (1985). Income inequality effects by income source—A new approach and applications to the United-States. Review of Economics and Statistics, 67(1), 151–156. https://doi.org/10.2307/1928447.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Li, J., Feldman, M. W., Li, S., & Daily, G. C. (2011). Rural household income and inequality under the Sloping Land Conversion Program in western China. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(19), 7721–7726. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1101018108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lopez-Fieldman, A. (2009). Decomposition of the Gini coefficient using Stata. Mexican Stata Users’ Group Meetings 2009. Stata Users Group.

  • López-Feldman, A., Mora, J., & Taylor, J. E. (2007). Does natural resource extraction mitigate poverty and inequality? Evidence from rural Mexico and a Lacandona Rainforest Community. Environment and Development Economics, 12(2), 251. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1355770x06003494.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mamo, G., Sjaastad, E., & Vedeld, P. (2007). Economic dependence on forest resources: A case from Dendi District, Ethiopia. Forest Policy and Economics, 9, 916–927. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2006.08.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masozera, M.K. & Alavalapati, J.R.R. (2010). Forest Dependency and its Implications for Protected Areas Management: A Case Study From the Nyungwe Forest Reserve, Rwanda. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research ISSN: 0282-7581 (Print) 1651–1891.

  • McElwee, P. D. (2008). Forest environmental income in Vietnam: Household socioeconomic factors influencing forest use. Environmental Conservation, 35(2), 147–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McElwee, P. D. (2010). Resource use among rural agricultural households near protected areas in Vietnam: The social costs of conservation and implications for enforcement. Environmental Management, 45(1), 113–131. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-009-9394-5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milelu, M.M, Mbithe, D., Kigaru, D., Kuria, E.N. (2017). Demographic and socio-economic determinants of availability and access dimensions of household food security in Kitui County Kenya. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition ISSN: 2455-4898.

  • Mosberg, M., & Eriksen, S. H. (2015). Responding to climate variability and change in dryland Kenya: The role of illicit coping strategies in the politics of adaptation. Global Environmental Change, 35, 545–557.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Munthali, K. G., & Murayama, Y. (2015). Modelling deforestation in Dzalanyama Forest Reserve, Lilongwe, Malawi: A multi-agent simulation approach. GeoJournal, 80, 743–757.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muyanga, M. (2005). Gender disaggregated analysis of charcoal production in Kenya. African Crop Science Conference Proceedings, 7, 897–900.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mwampamba, T. H., Ghilardi, A., Sander, K., & Jean, K. (2013). Dispelling common misconceptions to improve attitudes and policy outlook on charcoal in developing countries. Energy for Sustainable Development, 17(2), 75–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2013.01.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mwesigye, D., Vedeld, P., & Gombya-ssembajjwe, W. (2011). Breaking the law? Illegal livelihoods from a Protected Area in Uganda. Forest Policy and Economics, 13, 273–283.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nasar, A., Abdullah, M., Stacey, N., Garnett, S. T., & Myers, B. (2016). Economic dependence on mangrove forest resources for livelihoods in the Sundarbans, Bangladesh. Forest Policy and Economics, 64, 15–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2015.12.009.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ndathi, AJ.N., Moses M Nyangito, MM., Musimba, N.K.R., & Mitaru, B. N. (2011). Climate variability and dry season ruminant livestock feeding strategies in South Eastern Kenya. Livestock Research For Rural Development 23:(9).

  • Ndegwa, G., Anhuf, D., Nehren, U., Ghilardi, A., & Iiyama, M. (2016). Charcoal contribution to wealth accumulation at different scales of production among the rural population of Mutomo District in Kenya. Energy for Sustainable Development, 33, 167–175.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neufeldt, H., Langford, K., Fuller, J., Iiyama, M., & Dobie, P. (2015). From transition fuel to viable energy source: improving sustainability in the sub-Saharan charcoal sector, 1–30. https://doi.org/10.5716/wp15011.pdf.

  • Nielsen, M. R., Pouliot, M., & Bakkegaard, R. K. (2012). Combining income and assets measures to include the transitory nature of poverty in assessments of forest dependence: Evidence from the Democratic Republic of Congo. Ecological Economics, 78, 37–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Owen, M., Van der Plas, R., & Sepp, S. (2013). Can there be energy policy in Sub-Saharan Africa without biomass? Energy for Sustainable Development, 17(2), 146–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2012.10.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • PISCES (Policy Innovation Systems for Clean Energy Security). 2010. Promoting Sustainable Charcoal Production and Marketing in Kenya : A Comparative Analysis through Participatory Market Mapping. Nairobi.

  • Porro, R., Lopez-Feldman, A., & Vela-Alvarado, J. W. (2015). Forest use and agriculture in Ucayali, Peru: Livelihood strategies, poverty and wealth in an Amazon frontier. Forest Policy and Economics, 51, 47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2014.12.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Príncipe, A., Nunes, A., Pinho, P., Rosario, L., et al. (2014). Modeling the long-term natural regeneration potential of woodlands in semi-arid regions to guide restoration efforts. European Journal of Forest Research, 133, 757–767.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radeny, M., van den Berg, M., & Schipper, R. (2012). Rural poverty dynamics in Kenya: Structural declines and stochastic escapes. World Development, 40(8), 1577–1593. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2012.04.027.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Randriamalala, J. R., Radosy, H. O., Razanaka, S., Randriambanona, H., et al. (2016). Effects of goat grazing and woody charcoal production on xerophytic thickets of southwestern Madagascar. Journal of Arid Environments, 128, 65–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reddy, S. R. C., & Chakravarty, S. P. (1999). Forest dependence and income distribution in a subsistence economy: Evidence from India. World Development, 27(7), 1141–1149. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0305-750x(99)00057-1.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roncoli, C., Ingram, K., & Kirshen, P. (2001). The costs and risks of coping with drought: livelihood impacts and farmers’ responses in Burkina Faso. Climate Research, 19, 119–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruuska, E. (2013). Unsustainable charcoal production as a contributing factor to woodland fragmentation in southeast Kenya. Fennia, 191(1), 58–75. https://doi.org/10.11143/7644.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sander, K., Gros, C., & Peter, C. (2013). Enabling reforms: Analyzing the political economy of the charcoal sector in Tanzania. Energy for Sustainable Development, 17(2), 116–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2012.11.005.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schaafsma, M., Morse-jones, S., Posen, P., Swetnam, R. D., Balmford, A., Bateman, I. J., et al. (2012). Towards transferable functions for extraction of Non-timber Forest Products : A case study on charcoal production in Tanzania. Ecological Economics, 80, 48–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2012.04.026.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schure, J., Ingram, V., Sakho-Jimbira, M. S., Levang, P., & Wiersum, K. F. (2013). Formalisation of charcoal value chains and livelihood outcomes in Central- and West Africa. Energy for Sustainable Development, 17(2), 95–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2012.07.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sepp, S. (2008). Shaping charcoal policies: Context, process and instruments as exemplified by country cases. Germany: GTZ.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shackleton, S., Campbell, B., Lotz-Sisitka, H., & Shackleton, C. (2008). Links between the local trade in natural products, livelihoods and poverty alleviation in a semi-arid region of South Africa. World Development, 36(3), 505–526. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.03.003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shackleton, C. M., Shackleton, S. E., Buiten, E., & Bird, N. (2007). The importance of dry woodlands and forests in rural livelihoods and poverty alleviation in South Africa, 9, 558–577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2006.03.004.

  • Shisanya, C. A. (2011). Rainfall variability and its impact on normalized difference vegetation index in arid and semi-arid lands of Kenya. International Journal of Geosciences, 2, 36–47. https://doi.org/10.4236/ijg.2011.21004.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, H. E., Hudson, M. D., & Schreckenberg, K. (2017). Livelihood diversification: The role of charcoal production in southern Malawi. Energy for Sustainable Development, 36, 22–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2016.10.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Swets, J. A. (1988). Measuring the accuracy of diagnostic systems. Science, 240(4857), 1285–1293. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.3287615.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tesfaye, Y., Roos, A., Campbell, B. M., & Bohlin, F. (2011). Livelihood strategies and the role of forest income in participatory-managed forests of Dodola area in the bale highlands, southern Ethiopia. Forest Policy and Economics, 13(4), 258–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2011.01.002.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vedeld, P., Angelsen, A., Bojö, J., Sjaastad, E., & Kobugabe, G. (2007). Forest environmental incomes and the rural poor. Forest Policy and Economics, 9, 869–879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2006.05.008.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wan, M., Colfer, C. J. P., & Powell, B. (2011). Forests, women and health: Opportunities and challenges for conservation. International Forestry Review, 13, 369–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wiersum, K. F., Ingram, V. J., & Ros-Tonen, M. A. F. (2014). Governing access to resources and markets in non-timber forest product chains. Forests Trees and Livelihoods. London: Taylor & Francis. https://doi.org/10.1080/14728028.2013.868676.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, R. G., & Garside, B. (2014). Informality and market governance in wood and charcoal value chains. A briefing. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.

    Google Scholar 

  • Woollen, E., Ryan, C., Grundy, I., Baumert, S., Vollmer, F., Fernando, J., et al. (2016). Charcoal production in the Mopane woodlands of Mozambique: What are the tradeoffs with other ecosystem services? Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0315.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Worku, A., Pretzsch, J., Kassa, H., & Auch, E. (2014). The significance of dry forest income for livelihood resilience: The case of the pastoralists and agro-pastoralists in the drylands of southeastern Ethiopia. Forest Policy and Economics, 41, 51–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2014.01.001.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yao, S. (1997). Decomposition of Gini coefficients by income factors: A new approach and application. Applied Economics Letters, 4, 27–31. https://doi.org/10.1080/758521827.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhou, X. (2000). Economic transformation and income inequality in Urban China: Evidence from panel data. American Journal of Sociology, 105, 1135–1174.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zulu, L. C., & Richardson, R. B. (2013). Charcoal, livelihoods, and poverty reduction: Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa. Energy for Sustainable Development, 17(2), 127–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esd.2012.07.007.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the Ms Grietje Wille Legacy under the ASALI (A Sustainable Approach to Livelihood Improvements) project, a joint cooperation between VU University, the Netherlands, and SEKU University, Kenya. Additional support was obtained from the European Research Council under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme ERC Grant Agreement no. 311819 (GLOLAND). Special thanks go to the Chiefs Ndakani and Mutha for introducing us to the community. We are grateful to officials of the Mutha Charcoal Producers Association for information on their members. We thank Festus Kakuma for organizing field logistics and our enumerators Anthony Muthangya, Bruce Ndongi, Nicholas Munguti and Lacryx Munuve for toiling patiently in the field. We thank David Kunst for assistance with some of the analyses.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Environment and Natural Resources, South Eastern Kenya University, P.O. Box 170, Kitui, Kenya

    Harun M. Kiruki

  2. Environmental Geography Group, Department of Earth Sciences, Vrije Universiteit, de Boelelaan 1087, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, The Netherlands

    Harun M. Kiruki, Emma H. van der Zanden & Peter H. Verburg

  3. Department of Geological Sciences, South Eastern Kenya University, P.O. Box 170, Kitui, Kenya

    Patrick Kariuki

Authors
  1. Harun M. Kiruki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Emma H. van der Zanden
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Patrick Kariuki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Peter H. Verburg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Harun M. Kiruki.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix

Appendix

See Tables 8, 9 and 10, Figs. 4 and 5.

Table 8 List of common goods and services and their monetary value
Full size table
Table 9 Socio-economic variables used in OLS regression analysis
Full size table
Table 10 A comparison of asset holding between charcoal- and non-charcoal-making households
Full size table
Fig. 4
figure 4

A pie chart showing the main spending sources of charcoal income (charcoal-producing households)

Full size image
Fig. 5
figure 5

Relationship between total income and level of dependence on charcoal income

Full size image

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kiruki, H.M., van der Zanden, E.H., Kariuki, P. et al. The contribution of charcoal production to rural livelihoods in a semi-arid area in Kenya. Environ Dev Sustain 22, 6931–6960 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00521-2

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00521-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation