Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Water quality, criticality, and sustainability of mountain springs—a case study from the Nepal Himalaya

  • Research
  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In the hilly terrain of Nepal, springs are the main source of drinking water. With the increasing population, rapid urbanization, and unabated climate change, springs are under the risk of survival. There is increasing evidence that springs in the mid-hills of Nepal are drying up, or are reducing in discharge, or are deteriorating by water quality. As a result, local communities are facing unprecedented water stress. On this background scenario, assessment of water quality of the springs in the Marin Watershed of Sindhuli district of Nepal was carried out in this study. Spring water samples were collected during the pre-monsoon and post-monsoon of 2020 and their hydrochemistry was analyzed. Further, springs’ discharge was measured in situ and their criticality and sustainability were studied through community interaction. Results have revealed seasonal variation in spring discharge and spring water quality. Out of 39 flowing springs, water quality of 13, 8, and 6 springs, respectively, was very poor, poor, and unsuitable for drinking in the pre-monsoon. The count of springs with very poor, poor, and unsuitable drinking water quality during the post-monsoon was 8, 3, and 1, respectively. Occurrence of pathogenic bacteria (Escherichia coli) was identified in five spring samples which makes the spring water unsafe for drinking. Again, out of 51 springs studied, 12 are already dried up, and another 12 of the 39 flowing springs have become seasonal with very low discharge (0.03–0.07 L/s). The study highlights and emphasizes the need to protect the flowing springs and rejuvenate the dying springs of the Himalaya and of other parts of the world.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8
Fig. 9
Fig. 10
Fig. 11
Fig. 12
Fig. 13
Fig. 14

Similar content being viewed by others

Data availability

All the datasets used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

References

  • Adhikari, S., Gurung, A., Chauhan, R., Rijal, D., Dongol, B. S., Aryal, D., & Talchabhadel, R. (2021). Status of springs in mountain watershed of western Nepal. Water Policy, 23(1), 142–156. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2020.187

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Agarwal, A., Bhatnaga, N. K., Nema, R. K., & Agrawal, N. K. (2012). Rainfall dependence of springs in the Midwestern Himalayan Hills of Uttarakhand. Mountain Research and Development, 32, 446–455.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Al-Khashman, O. A. (2008). Assessment of the spring water quality in the Shoubak area, Jordan. The Environmentalist, 28(3), 203–215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10669-007-9129-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ansari, A., Deodhar, A., & Kumar, U. S. (2019). Modeling of geochemical processes and multivariate statistical analysis for hydrochemical assessment of spring water of the outer. Environmental Earth Sciences, 78, 665. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8682-5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • APHA. (2012). Standard methods for examination of water and wastewater (22nd ed.). American Public Health Association.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barakat, A., Meddah, R., Afdali, M., & Touhami, F. (2018). Physicochemical and microbial assessment of spring water quality for drinking supply in Piedmont of Béni-Mellal Atlas (Morocco). Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, 104, 39–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2018.01.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhuiyan, C., & Champati Ray, P. K. (2017). Groundwater quality zoning in the perspective of health hazards. Water Resources Management, 31(1), 251–267.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bhuiyan, C., Flügel, W. A., & Singh, R. P. (2009). Erratic monsoon, growing water demand and declining water table. Journal of Spatial Hydrology, 9(1), 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bricker, S. H., Yadav, S. K., Macdonald, A. M., Satyal, Y., Dixit, A., & Bell, R. (2014). Groundwater resilience in Nepal: Preliminary findings from a case study in the Middle Hills. In British Geological Survey Open Report.

    Google Scholar 

  • CBS. (2019). Environment statistics of Nepal. Central Bureau of Statistic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapagain, P. S., Ghimire, M., & Shrestha, S. (2019). Status of natural springs in the Melamchi region of the Nepal Himalayas in the context of climate change. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 21(1), 263–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chauhan, R., Shrestha, A., Oh, S. E., & Gurung, A. (2023). The degradation of spring water resources in Nepal: Some policy gaps. Water Policy, 25(4), 338–358.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chhimwal, M., Kaur, S., Srivastava, R. K., Hagare, D., & Prasad, H. J. S. (2022). Water quality of springs and lakes in the Kumaon Lesser Himalayan Region of Uttarakhand, India. J Water Health, 20(4), 737–754. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2022.028

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Daniel, D., Anandhi, A., & Sen, S. (2021). Conceptual model for the vulnerability assessment of springs in the Indian Himalayas. Climate, 9, 121. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli9080121

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dhital, M. R. (2015). Geology of the Nepal Himalaya: Regional perspective of the classic collided orogen. Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • DMG. (2007). Preliminary exploration of limestone and dolomite around Kerabari and Sisne Khola area, Palpa Distrcit, Western Nepal. Annual Report, 4, 25–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fetter, C. W. (2014). Applied hydrogeology (4th ed.). Pearson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghimire, M., Chapagain, P. S., & Shrestha, S. (2019). Mapping of groundwater spring potential zone using geospatial techniques in the Central Nepal Himalayas: A case example of Melamchi–Larke area. Journal of Earth System Science, 128(2), 26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ghimire, M., Regmi, T., Kayastha, S. P., & Bhuiyan, C. (2023). Groundwater quality and community health risk in Lalitpur Metropolitan City, Nepal – A geospatial analysis. Geocarto International, 38(1), 2168069. https://doi.org/10.1080/10106049.2023.2168069

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gurung, A., Adhikari, S., Chauhan, R., Thakuri, S., Nakarmi, S., Ghale, S., Dongol, B. S., & Rijal, D. (2019). Water crises in a water-rich country: Case studies from rural watersheds of Nepal’s mid-hills. Water Policy, 21(4), 826–847. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2019.245

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holman, I. P. (2006). Climate change impacts on groundwater recharge- Uncertainty, shortcomings, and the way forward. Hydrogeology Journal, 14, 637–647.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • ICIMOD. (2009). The changing Himalayas: Impact of climate change on water resources and livelihoods in the Greater Himalayas. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD).

    Google Scholar 

  • ICIMOD. (2015). Reviving the drying springs: Reinforcing social development and economic growth in the midhills of Nepal. Issue Brief, February 2015. International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), Nepal.

    Google Scholar 

  • Khadka, K., & Rijal, M. L. (2020). Hydrogeochemical assessment of spring water resources around Melamchi, Central Nepal. Water Practice and Technology, 15(3), 748–758. https://doi.org/10.2166/wpt.2020.066

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krishna, C. P., & Rijal, M. (2016). Study of springs of Khar area, Darchula, Far- Western Nepal. Bulletin of Nepal Hydrogeological Association, 2, 39–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lourenco, C., Ribeiro, L., & Cruz, J. (2010). Classification of natural mineral and spring bottled waters of Portugal using principal component analysis. Journal of Geochemical Exploration, 107(3), 362–372. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gexplo.2010.08.001

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Meybeck, M. (1987). Global chemical weathering of surficial rocks estimated from river dissolved loads. American Journal of Science, 287(5), 401–428.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Negi, G. C. S., & Joshi, V. (2002). Drinking water issues and development of spring sanctuaries in a mountain watershed in the Indian Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, 22, 29–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Negi, G. C. S., & Joshi, V. (2004). Rainfall and spring discharge patterns in two small drainage catchment in the western Himalayan Mountains, India. The Environmentalist, 24, 19–28. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:ENVR.0000046343.45118.78

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Niezgoda, S., & Johnson, P. A. (2005). Improving the urban stream restoration effort: Identifying critical form and process relationships. Environmental Management, 35, 579–592. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-004-0088-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pandit, S., Shakya, N., & Shrestha, S. R. (2019). Distribution and classification of springs in Bansbari area of Melamchi Municipality, Sindhupalchowk, Nepal. Journal of Nepal Geological Society, 59, 49–58. https://doi.org/10.3126/jngs.v59i0.24985

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pant, R. R., Zhang, F., Rehman, F. U., Wang, G., Ye, M., Zeng, C., & Tang, H. (2018). Spatiotemporal variations of hydrogeochemistry and its controlling factors in the Gandaki River Basin, Central Himalaya Nepal. Science of the Total Environment, 622-623, 770–782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.12.063

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pantha, S., Timilsina, S., Pantha, S., Manjan, S. K., & Maharjan, M. (2022). Water quality index of springs in mid-hill of Nepal. Environmental Challenges, 9, 00658. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100658

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Poudel, D. D., & Duex, T. W. (2017). Vanishing springs in Nepalese Mountains: Assessment of water sources, farmers’ perceptions, and climate change adaptation. Mountain Research and Development, 37, 35–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma, A. R. (2015). Climate change and community perceptions in the Khudi Watershed, Lamjung, Nepal. Hydro Nepal: Journal of Water, Energy & Environment, 17, 49–54.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma, B., Nepal, S., Gyawali, D., Pokharel, G. S., Wahid, S. M., Mukherji, A., Acharya, S., & Shrestha, A. B. (2016). Springs, storage towers, and water conservation in the midhills of Nepal. ICIMOD Working Paper 2016/3. Nepal Water Conservation Foundation and International Center for Mountain Development, Kathmandu, Nepal.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sharma, P., Dhanjit, D., & Saikia, R. (2011). Analysis of changing landuse pattern and its effect on Umtrew Basin, Northeast India. Hungarian Geographical Bulletin, 60(1), 67–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shrestha, A., Shrestha, S. M., & Pradhan, A. M. S. (2023). Assessment of spring water quality of Khandbari Municipality in Sankhuwasabha District, Eastern Nepal. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 30, 98452–98469. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-29138-9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Singh, K. P., Malik, A., Mohan, D., & Sinha, S. (2004). Multivariate statistical techniques for the evaluation of spatial and temporal variations in water quality of Gomti River (India)— A case study. Water Research, 38(18), 3980–3992. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2004.06.011

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tambe, S., Kharel, G., Arrawatia, M. L., Kulkarni, H., Mahamuni, K., & Ganeriwala, A. K. (2012). Reviving dying springs: Climate change adaptation experiments from the Sikkim Himalaya. Mountain Research and Development, 32(1), 62–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tashtoush, S. M., & Al-Subh, S. A. (2015). Interpretation of groundwater quality parameters for springs in Tafileh area in south of Jordan using principal components analysis. Environmental Sciences, 3, 31–44. https://doi.org/10.12988/es.2015.523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thapa, B., Pant, R. R., Thakuri, S., & Pond, G. (2020). Assessment of spring water quality in Jhimruk River Watershed, Lesser Himalaya, Nepal. Environmental Earth Sciences, 79, 504. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-020-09252-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Verma, R., & Jamwal, P. (2022). Sustenance of Himalayan springs in an emerging water crisis. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 194(2), 87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vishwakarma, C. A., Sen, R., Singh, N., Singh, P., Rena, V., Rina, K., & Mukherjee, S. (2018). Geochemical characterization and controlling factors of chemical composition of spring water in a part of eastern Himalaya. Journal of Geological Society of India, 92, 753–763.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wali, S. U., Alias, N., & Harun, S. B. (2021). Reevaluating the hydrochemistry of groundwater in basement complex aquifers of Kaduna Basin, NW Nigeria using multivariate statistical analysis. Environmental Earth Sciences, 80(5), 208. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-021-09421-z

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wu, J., Li, P., Qian, H., Duan, Z., & Zhang, X. (2014). Using correlation and multivariate statistical analysis to identify hydrogeochemical processes affecting the major ion chemistry of waters: A case study in Laoheba phosphorite mine in Sichuan, China. Arabian Journal of Geoscience, 7(10), 3973–3982.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors sincerely thank the anonymous reviewers for offering valuable suggestions for betterment of the manuscript. Research grants received by Mohan Raj Upreti from the National Youth Council, Bhaktapur, Nepal is also being duly acknowledged.

Funding

Mohan Raj Upreti (MRU) received research grants from National Youth Council, Bhaktapur, Nepal, in 2020. The grant number is 565.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal

    Mohan Raj Upreti & Sadhana Pradhanang Kayastha

  2. Department of Civil Engineering, Sikkim Manipal Institute of Technology, Majitar, Sikkim, India

    Chandrashekhar Bhuiyan

Authors
  1. Mohan Raj Upreti
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Sadhana Pradhanang Kayastha
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Chandrashekhar Bhuiyan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Conceptualization: Sadhana Pradhanang Kayastha and Mohan Raj Upreti; Field work and chemical analysis: Mohan Raj Upreti; Supervision: Sadhana Pradhanang Kayastha; Writing original draft: Mohan Raj Upreti and Sadhana Pradhanang Kayastha; Rewriting, editing and final shape: Chandrashekhar Bhuiyan.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Chandrashekhar Bhuiyan.

Ethics declarations

Ethics approval

All authors have read, understood, and have complied as applicable with the statement on “Ethical responsibilities of Authors”. The questionnaire and methodology for this study was in accordance with the Human Research Ethics. No unethical question or practice was involved in the process.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants who willingly volunteered in the study.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interests.

Code availability

No unauthorized code was used for this study.

Additional information

Publisher’s note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Supplementary information

ESM 1

(DOCX 21 kb)

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Upreti, M.R., Kayastha, S.P. & Bhuiyan, C. Water quality, criticality, and sustainability of mountain springs—a case study from the Nepal Himalaya. Environ Monit Assess 196, 57 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-12186-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-12186-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation