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Water quality, WASH, and gender: differential impacts on health and well-being in Abeokuta City, Nigeria

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Abstract

It is often assumed that humans experience the effect of poor water quality like multiple health and socioeconomic impacts in the same way. But these impacts are not gender neutral due to inequalities caused by physiological composition, age marginalization, and socioeconomic conditions, among others. A mixed method, comprising water quality assessment, a survey of 456 individuals, and medical record collection, was applied to examine the differential impacts of water quality and WASH practices in Abeokuta City, Nigeria. The assessment shows that without point-of-use water treatment, the water sources in the area are not safe for potable purposes, as the waters are hard in the sequence of borehole > surface water > hand-dug well > sachet water, with elevated levels of calcium (> 75 mg/L) and not free from microbial contamination. Among the area population segments, men and boys (relative to women and girls) may be more susceptible (55%) to the compounding health effects associated with the hardness and high calcium concentration in water. Girls are the most affected by the associated impacts of water collection. Men and boys are more vulnerable to the consequences of poor hygiene, while women are more susceptible to the health effects of toilet cleaning and the sharing of sanitation facilities, among others. We conclude that there are differential impacts of unsafe water, WASH services, and practices on human health. Gendered statistics through sex-disaggregated data is crucial to unmasking the differential impacts, which are neither gender neutral nor evenly distributed between women and men, and boys and girls.

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Data availability

The dataset generated during and or analyzed during this study are presented in this manuscript. The links to the appendices are available here—Appendix I, Appendix II, and Appendix III.

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Acknowledgements

The authors appreciate the survey participants and all the supporting institutions.

Funding

This research is supported by the funds received by the United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH) through the long-term agreement with Global Affairs Canada.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. United Nations University Institute for Water, Environment and Health (UNU-INWEH), Hamilton, Ontario, Canada

    Grace Oluwasanya, Duminda Perera & Manzoor Qadir

  2. School of Geography and Health Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada

    Grace Oluwasanya, Duminda Perera & Manzoor Qadir

  3. Federal University of Agriculture, (FUNAAB), Abeokuta, Nigeria

    Grace Oluwasanya, Ayodetimi Omoniyi & Barakat Layi-adigun

  4. Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada

    Duminda Perera

  5. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization World Water Assessment Programme (UNESCO WWAP), Perugia, Italy

    Laurens Thuy

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Contributions

Conceptualization, Manzoor Qadri and Grace Oluwasanya; methodology, Grace Oluwasanya and Ayodetimi Omoniyi; field survey, Grace Oluwasanya, Ayodetimi Omoniyi, and Barakat Layi-adigun; formal analysis, Grace Oluwasanya, Ayodetimi Omoniyi, and Barakat Layi-adigun; writing—original draft preparation, Grace Oluwasanya and Ayodetimi Omoniyi; writing—review and editing, Duminda Perera, Laurens Thuy, and Manzoor Qadir. All authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and agreed to the final manuscript.

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Correspondence to Grace Oluwasanya.

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The study involved no medical procedures, presented no harm to the participants, and followed the WHO guidance on research methods for Health Emergency and Disaster Risk Management (HEDRM) and the ethical protocol approved by the Ogun State Hospital Management Board.

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Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

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Oluwasanya, G., Omoniyi, A., Perera, D. et al. Water quality, WASH, and gender: differential impacts on health and well-being in Abeokuta City, Nigeria. Environ Monit Assess 195, 1255 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-023-11833-2

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