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Quality and human health risk assessment of uranium and other heavy metals in drinking water from Kwale County, Kenya

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Abstract

Heavy metal contamination in drinking water is a global health concern. Anthropogenic and geogenic activities exacerbate the concentrations of these metals in surface and groundwater. In this study, we sampled drinking water sourced from surface and groundwater resources at the environs of Mrima Hill and the Kwale heavy minerals sand deposit, Kwale County, Kenya. The concentrations of Cr, Ni, Cu, As, Cd, Pb, and U were measured using the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. The water quality indices were evaluated using the weighted arithmetic index method, while the human health risks due to exposure to these heavy metals through the ingestion pathway were assessed using deterministic and probabilistic techniques. The concentrations of Cr and Cd in samples from both study areas exceeded the national and international maximum contaminant levels in drinking water. The concentration levels of Ni, Cu, As, and U in all samples from both study areas were within the recommended values in drinking water. Therefore, the quality of water from both study areas was unsuitable for human consumption due to Cd and Cr contamination. The non-carcinogenic risk assessment also showed that the hazard indices (HI) evaluated for both children and adults at the study areas were higher than unity. In addition, the estimated carcinogenic risks of both population groups were more than the recommended value of 10–4. This study shows that the residents near Mrima Hill and the Kwale heavy minerals sand deposit remain susceptible to carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risks emanating from exposure to these heavy metals in drinking water.

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Availability of data and material

The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available since this is part of an on-going doctoral research but are available from the corresponding author on request. Applicable data have been submitted as supplementary data to the manuscript.

Code availability

The Monte Carlo simulation used was based on EnviroPRA package in R-environment (Barrio-parra & Dominguez-Castillo, 2017). The specific modifications are not publicly available since this if part of an on-going doctoral research but may be made available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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Acknowledgements

Pamella K. Kilavi wishes to acknowledge the support of the Organization for Women in Science from the Developing World (OWSD) and the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) towards a sandwich program at University of the Witwatersrand, South Africa. She further extends her gratitude to the Higher Education Loans Board, Kenya, for the tuition scholarship at the University of Nairobi. The authors also wish to acknowledge the immense guidance of A. M. Monyai, a senior technician at the Environmental Analytical Laboratory, University of the Witwatersrand.

Funding

This research was supported by the Organization for Women in Science from Developing World (OWSD).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Physics, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag 3 – 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa

    Pamella Kageliza Kilavi

  2. Department of Physics, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197-00100, Nairobi, Kenya

    Pamella Kageliza Kilavi, M. I. Kaniu & J. P. Patel

  3. School of Physics, University of the Witwatersrand, Private Bag X3, WITS 2050, Johannesburg, South Africa

    I. T. Usman

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Pamella K. Kilavi conceptualized and designed the study and further did the sample collection, experimental work, statistical work. The study was validated and supervised by M. I. Kaniu, J. P. Patel and I. T. Usman. The manuscript was drafted by P. K. Kilavi and I. T. Usman and by reviewed by M. I. Kaniu and J. P. Patel. All authors have read and agreed to have this work published as a manuscript with Environmental Monitoring and Assessment journal.

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Kilavi, P.K., Kaniu, M.I., Patel, J.P. et al. Quality and human health risk assessment of uranium and other heavy metals in drinking water from Kwale County, Kenya. Environ Monit Assess 193, 746 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-021-09466-4

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