Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Spatial and temporal analysis of ground level ozone and nitrogen dioxide concentration across the twin cities of Pakistan

  • Published:
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The analyses presented in this paper include the concentration levels of NO2 and O3 measured during 2 successive years in twin cities (Rawalpindi and Islamabad) of Pakistan from November 2009 to March 2011. NO2 was determined using the passive sampling method, while ozone was determined by Model 400E ozone analyzer. The average NO2 and O3 concentration in twin cities of Pakistan was found to be 44 ± 6 and 18.2 ± 1.24 ppb, respectively. Results indicate that the concentration of NO2 and O3 show seasonal variations. Results also depict that NO2 and O3 concentration levels are high in areas of intense traffic flow and congestion. Rawalpindi has more elevated levels of NO2 and O3 as compared to the Islamabad due to the narrow roads, enclosing architecture of road network and congestion. Climatic variables also influenced the NO2 and O3 concentration, i.e., temperature is positively related with O3, while negatively related with NO2, relative humidity is directly related with NO2 and inversely related with O3, whereas rainfall show negative association with both NO2 and O3 concentration. Comparing the results with WHO standards reveals that NO2 concentration levels at all the sampling points are above the permissible limit, while ozone concentration is still lower than the WHO standards. Thus, there is a need to take appropriate steps to control these continuously increasing levels of NO2 and O3 before they become a serious hazard for the environment and people living in those areas.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Afshar, H., & Delavar, M. R. (2007). GIS-based air pollution modeling in Tehran. Environmental Informatics, 5, 557–566.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad, S. S., Buker, P., Emberson, L., & Shabbir, R. (2011). Monitoring nitrogen dioxide levels in urban areas in Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Water Air Soil Pollution, 220(1–4), 141–150.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ali, M., & Athar, M. (2008). Air pollution due to traffic, air quality monitoring along three sections of National Highway N-5, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 136, 219–226.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Asian Development Bank. (ADB). (2005) Summary environmental impact assessment Rawalpindi environmental improvement project in the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, 1–46.

  • Atkins, D. H. F., & Lee, D. S. (1995). Spatial and temporal Variation of rural nitrogen dioxide concentration across the United Kingdom. Atmospheric Environment, 29(2), 223–239.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Atkins, D. H. G., Healy, C., & Tarrant, J.B. (1978). The use of simple diffusion tubes for the measurement of nitrogen dioxide in homes using gas and electricity for cooking. Report, AERE-R 9184, HMSO, London.

  • Atkins, D. H. F., Sandalls, J., Law, D. V., Hough, A. M., & Stevenson, K. (1986). The measurement of nitrogen dioxide in the outdoor environment using passive diffusion tube samplers. United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority Report, AERE R-12133, Harwell Laboratory, Oxfordshire.

  • Banja, M., Como, E., Murtaj, B., & Zotaj, A. (2010). Mapping air pollution in urban Tirana area using GIS. International Conference SDI, Skopje, 15–17 September, 105–114.

  • Barnes, J., Parsons, B., & Salter, L. (2005). GIS mapping of nitrogen dioxide diffusion tube monitoring in Cornwall, UK. Air Pollution, 13, 157–166.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, G. W. (1988). Measurements of nitrogen dioxide concentrations at rural sites in the United Kingdom using diffusion tubes. Environmental Pollution, 55, 251–270.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Campbell, G. W., Stedman, J. R., & Stevenson, K. (1994). A survey of nitrogen dioxide concentrations in the United Kingdom using diffusion tubes. Atmospheric Environment, 28, 477–486.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Campos, V. P., Cruz, L. P. S., Godoi, R. H. M., Godoi, A. N. L., & Tavares, T. M. (2010). Development and validation of passive samplers for atmospheric monitoring of SO2, NO2, O3 and H2S in tropical areas. Microchemical Journal, 96, 132–138.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chan, A. T., So, E. S. P., & Samad, C. S. (2001). Strategic guidelines for street canyon geometry to achieve sustainable street quality. Atmospheric Environment, 35, 5681–5691.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, J., Wang, W., Zhang, J., Liu, H., Ren, L., Liu, X., et al. (2009). Characteristics of gaseous pollutants near a main traffic line in Beijing and its influencing factors. Atmospheric Research, 94, 470–480.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Elbir, T., Mangir, N., Kara, M., Simsir, S., Eren, T., & Ozdemir, S. (2010). Development of a GIS-based decision support system for urban air quality management in the city of Istanbul. Atmospheric Environment, 44, 441–454.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Esplugues, A., Ballester, F., Estarlich, M., Llop, S., Fuentes, V., Mantilla, E., et al. (2010). Indoor and Outdoor Concentrations and Determinants of NO2 in a Cohort of 1-year-old Children in Valencia, Spain. International Journal of Indoor Environment and Health, 20, 213–223.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • ESRI. (2007). GIS for Air quality. ESRI, New York, USA. http://www.esri.com/library/bestpractices/air-quality.pdf. Accessed 28 December 2010.

  • Ghauri, B., Lodhi, A., & Mansha, M. (2007). Development of baseline (air quality) data in Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 127, 237–252.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert, N. L., Goldberg, M. S., Beckerman, B., Brook, J. R., & Jerrett, M. (2005). Assessing spatial variability of ambient nitrogen dioxide in Montreal, Canada, with a land-use regression model. Journal of the Air and Waste Management Association, 65, 1059–1063.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gualtier, G., & Tartaglia, M. (1998). Predicting urban traffic air pollution: a GIS framework. Transportation Research part D: Transport and Environment, 3(5), 329–336.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gujar, B. R., Butler, T. M., Lawrence, M. G., & Lelieved, J. (2008). Evaluation of emissions and air quality in mega cities. Atmospheric Environment, 42, 1593–1606.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hansen, T. S., Kruse, M., Nissen, H., Glasius, M., & Lohse, C. (2001). Measurements of nitrogen dioxide in Greenland using Palmes diffusion tubes. Journal of Environmental Monitoring, 3, 139–145.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hargreaves, P. R., Leidi, A., Grubb, H. J., Howe, M. T., & Mugglestone, M. A. (2000). Local and seasonal variations in atmospheric nitrogen dioxide levels at Rothamsted, UK, and relationship with meteorological conditions. Atmospheric Environment, 34, 843–853.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Heywood, J. B. (1988). Internal combustion engine fundamentals (p. 930). New York: McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ibarrar-Berastegi, G., & Madariaga, I. (2003). Traffic congestion and ozone precursor emissions in Bilbao (Spain). Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 10(6), 361–367.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jensen, S. S. (1998). Mapping human exposure to traffic air pollution using GIS. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 61(1–3), 385–392.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, J. J., Smorodinsky, S., Lipsett, M., Singer, B. C., Hodgson, A. T., & Ostro, B. (2004). Traffic-related air pollution near busy roads. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 170, 520–526.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kirby, C., Greig, A., & Drye, T. (1998). Temporal and spatial variations in nitrogen dioxide concentrations across an urban landscape: Cambridge, UK. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 52(1–2), 65–68.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lebret, E., Briggs, D., Reeuwijk, H. V., Fischer, P., Smallbone, K., Harssema, H., et al. (2000). Small area variations in ambient NO2 concentrations in four European areas. Atmospheric Environment, 34, 177–185.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lee, D. S., Holland, M. K., & Falla, N. (1996). The potential impact of ozone on materials in the UK. Atmospheric Environment, 30, 1053–1065.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lieu, S. C., Trainer, M., Fehsenfeld, F. C., Parrish, D. D., Williams, E. J., & Fahey, D. W. (1987). Ozone production in the rural troposphere and its implications for regional and global ozone distributions. Journal of Geophysical Research, 92, 4194–4207.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lin, T. Y., Young, L. H., & Wan, C. S. (2001). Spatial variations of ground level ozone concentrations in areas of different scales. Atmospheric Environment, 35(33), 5799–5807.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lodhi, Z. H. (2006). Measurement of ambient concentration of NO2 in different cities of Pakistan using diffusion samplers. Report. Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Pakistan.

  • Lozano, A., Usero, J., Vanderlinden, E., Raez, J., Contreras, J., & Navarrete, B. (2009a). Air quality monitoring network design to control nitrogen dioxide and ozone, applied in Malaga, Spain. Microchemical Journal, 93, 164–172.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Lozano, A., Usero, J., Vanderlinden, E., Raez, J., Contreras, J., & Navarrete, B. (2009b). Design of air quality monitoring networks and its application to NO2 and O3 in Cordova, Spain. Microchemical Journal, 93, 211–219.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Markovic, D. M., Markovic, D. A., Jovanovic, A., Lazic, L., & Mijic, Z. (2008). Determination of O3, NO2, SO2, CO and PM10 measured in Belgrade urban area. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 145, 349–359.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, P., Cabanas, B., Villanueva, F., Gallego, M. P., Colmenarm, I., & Salgado, S. (2009). Ozone and nitrogen dioxide levels monitored in an urban area (Ciudad Real) in Central-southern Spain. Water Air and Soil Pollution, 208, 305–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzeo, N. A., & Venegas, L. E. (2002). Estimation of cumulative frequency distribution for carbon monoxide concentration from wind-speed data in Buenos Aires (Argentina). Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 2, 419–432.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mazzeo, N. A., & Venegas, L. E. (2004). Some aspects of air pollution in Buenos Aires City. International Journal of Environment and Pollution, 22(4), 365–379.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ministry of Communication of Pakistan, & Scandia consult. (1995). Greater Islamabad/Rawalpindi Area Transportation Study (GIRATS).

  • Pakistan EPA. (2005). State of the Environment Report 2005 (Draft). http://www.environment.gov.pk/Publications.htm. Accessed 14 January 2011.

  • Palmes, E. D., Gunnison, A. F., Di Mattio, J., & Tomczyk, C. (1976). Personal sampler for nitrogen dioxide. American Industrial Hygiene Association Journal, 37, 570–577.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pummakarnchana, O., Tripathi, N., & Dutta, J. (2005). Air pollution monitoring and GIS modeling: a new use of nanotechnology based solid state gas sensors. Science and Technology of Advanced Materials, 6, 251–255.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shan, W., Yin, Y., Zhang, J., Ji, X., & Deng, X. (2009). Surface ozone and meteorological conditions in a single year at an urban site in Central eastern China. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 151, 127–141.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sindhu, A. S. (2008). Energy and road transport in Pakistan situation, issues and options. Pak-NFG, RDPI and Research and development in Human Settlement, Position Paper, 1–6.

  • Spengler, J. D., Duffy, C. P., Letz, R., Tibbitts, T. W., & Ferris, B. G. J. R. (1983). Nitrogen dioxide inside and outside 137 homes and implications for ambient air quality standards and health effects research. Environmental Science and Technology, 17, 164–168.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Stevenson, K., Bush, T., & Mooney, D. (2001). Five years of nitrogen dioxide measurement with diffusion tube samplers at over 1000 Sites in the UK. Atmospheric Environment, 35, 281–287.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vardoulakis, S., Lumbreras, J., & Solazzo, E. (2009). Comparative evaluation of nitrogen oxides and ozone passive diffusion tubes for exposure studies. Atmospheric Environment, 43, 2509–2517.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Varshney, C. K., & Singh, A. P. (2003). Passive samplers for NO x monitoring: a critical review. The Environmentalist, 23, 127–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Veen, A. V. D., Briggs, D. J., Collins, S., Elliott, S., Fischer, P., Kingham, S., et al. (2010). Mapping urban air pollution using GIS: a regression-based approach. International Journal of Geographical Information Science, 11(7), 699–718.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vienneau, D., de Hoogh, K., & Briggs, D. (2009). A GIS-based method for modeling air pollution exposures across Europe. Science of the Total Environment, 408, 255–266.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wahid, A., Maggs, R. S. R. A., Shamsi, J. N. B., Bell, T., & Ashmore, M. R. (1995a). Air pollution and its impact on wheat yield in the Pakistan, Punjab. Environmental Pollution, 88, 147–154.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wahid, A., Maggs, R. S. R. A., Shamsi, J. N. B., Bell, T., & Ashmore, M. R. (1995b). Effects of air pollution on rice yield in the Pakistan, Punjab. Environmental Pollution, 90, 323–329.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wald, L., Basly, L., & Baleynaud, J. M. (1998). Satellite data for the air pollution mapping. 18th EARSeL Symposium on Operational Remote Sensing for Sustainable Development, Enschede, Netherlands, 133–139.

Download references

Acknowledgment

This research project has been supported by the Pakistan Science Foundation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Environmental Sciences, Fatima Jinnah Women University, Rawalpindi, Pakistan

    Sheikh Saeed Ahmad & Neelam Aziz

Authors
  1. Sheikh Saeed Ahmad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Neelam Aziz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Sheikh Saeed Ahmad.

Appendix

Appendix

Sampling sites

Codes

Dull carriage ways

Rawalpindi

Airport road

2

Peshawar Road

90

6th Road

0

Murree Road

86

Mall Road

119

Islamabad

Islamabad Expressway Highway

63

Main Zero point

132

National Highway Authority Underpass

87

Major Roads

Rawalpindi

Faiz Abad

48

Bank Road

16

Ammar Chowk

11

Missile Chowk

84

Main Khanna Road

73

Ali Nawaz Gol Chowk

8

Karal Chowk

72

Sir Syed Chowk Tipu Road

114

Chaklala Garrisons

26

Islamabad

Faiz Ahmad Faiz Road

47

Rawal Dam Road

99

Islamabad Toll Plaza

65

Sub-roads

Rawalpindi

Justice Ali Nawaz Chohan Chowk

136

Tipu Road

120

Rawal Road

100

Saidpur Road

106

College Road

35

Hummak Road

60

Islamabad

Sufi Tabassam Road

116

Post Office Road G-6/2

94

Tarnol

117

Khokhar Road

76

Small Roads

Rawalpindi

Transformer Chowk

122

Raja Ashraf Road

98

Chaklala Road

25

Islamabad

Lehtrar link Road

79

KRL Road

77

Enercon G-5/2

42

Public Hospitals

Rawalpindi

CMH Hospital

34

Benazir Bhutto Hospital

19

Cantonment General Hospital

39

Social Security Hospital I 12

115

Holy Family Hospital

58

Islamabad

Poly Clinic Hospital

93

PIMS

91

NOORI

89

Private Hospitals

Rawalpindi

Jinnah Memorial Hospital

69

Anwar Hospital

 

Al-Sadiq Hospital

4

Ibrar Surgery

61

Bilal Hospital

20

Marium Memorial Hospital

82

Anwar clinic Peshawar Road

12

Al-shifa Eye hospital

5

Valley Clinic

124

Islamabad

Ali Medical Centre

6

Public Educational Institutions

Rawalpindi

FJWU

52

Gorden College

54

F.G Sir Syed College

46

Government College for Women satellite Town

57

F.G Postgraduate College for Girls

45

FWO Primary School Chaklala

53

Govt. Post Graduate College for Women

128

University of Arid Agriculture

13

RMC

103

Waqar-un-Nisa College

126

Government degree College for women

56

Rawalpindi College for Girls 6th Road

101

Islamabad

F.G Margalla College for Women F-7/4

44

H-8/2 School for Boys and Girls

130

F.G Junior Model School for Boys

43

Allama Iqbal Open University

10

Quaid-e-Azam University

96

Islamabad College for Girls F-6/2

66

Private educational institutions

Rawalpindi

Silver Oaks School

113

Al-Mehr Public School

7

The Lassanians

118

City School

31

Leaders College

78

Beacon House

17

Fazaia Inter College

127

Toddlers High School

121

Beacon House Peshawar Road

18

Rawalpindi College of Commerce

102

University of Lahore

123

Educators

40

City School Peshawar Road

32

Roots

105

House of Secondary Education

59

Educators Peshawar road campus

41

Islamic International Medical College

67

Cambridge School System

23

Govt. Denny’s Higher Secondary School

131

Islamabad

CIIT

29

FAST University

50

Islamabad Medical and Dental College

64

International Islamic University

62

Preston University

95

Old residential area

Rawalpindi

Khayaban Sir Syed

75

Jhanda Chichi

68

Shamsabad

112

Rehmanabad

104

Sadiq Abad

107

Modern residential area

 

Rawalpindi

Satellite Town

108

Scheme-2

110

Civil Lines

33

Fazaia Colony

51

Babar Colony

15

 

Commercial area

Islamabad

Blue Area

22

Rawalpindi

City Saddar Road

30

Commercial Market

36

Bus stations

Rawalpindi

Sowan

109

Pir Wadhi Moor

92

Kachehri Chowk

71

Ammar Chowk

134

Missile Chowk

135

Committee Chowk

37

Chandni Chowk

27

Airport

1

Liaquat Bagh Chowk

81

Islamabad

Golra Mor

55

Faizabad Bridge

49

 

Play/recreational grounds

Rawalpindi

Community Park

38

Shah Baloot Park

111

Nawaz Sharif Park

88

Ayub Park

14

Liaquat Bagh

80

Jinnah Park

70

Race Course

97

Biodiversity Park

21

Islamabad

Pir Sohawa

133

Virsa Café

125

Semi-rural area

Rawalpindi

Morgah

85

Misrial

83

Gujar Khan

129

Ali Pur Farash

9

Khanna

74

Islamabad

Choor Chowk

28

Chak shehzad

24

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Ahmad, S.S., Aziz, N. Spatial and temporal analysis of ground level ozone and nitrogen dioxide concentration across the twin cities of Pakistan. Environ Monit Assess 185, 3133–3147 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2778-7

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-012-2778-7

Keywords

Search

Navigation