Abstract
The Citarum watershed is West Java Province’s most important water resource; hence, harmful compounds should be monitored regularly. This study assessed pollution levels along with ecological and health risks from Cd, Pb, Mn, Fe, Cu, Cr, and Hg contamination in river water, sediment, groundwater, and soil in Citarum’s upper watershed. In river water, the average amounts of Cd, Pb, Mn, Fe, Cu, Cr, and Hg were 0.002, 0.05, 0.092, 0.649, 0.022, 0.001, and 0.421 mg/L. In sediment, they were 7.4, 1175.1, 32,289.9, 37.3, 3.9, and 0.015 mg/kg. The mean concentrations of Cd, Pb, Mn, Fe, Cu, Cr, and Hg in groundwater were 0.004, 0.046, 0.567, 0.366, 0.019, 0.001, and 0.177 mg/L, and in soil, BDL, 10.2, 744.6, 50,094.1, 45.6, 5.9, and 0.015 mg/kg. The river water and groundwater were highly polluted by PTEs, with HPI values of 14,733 and 933, respectively. While PTEs pollution levels and risk in sediment and soil were low based on I-geo, CF, PLI, and M-ERM-Q values, PTEs contamination in river water may cause adverse impacts on aquatic living organisms (HQ > 1). The population doing recreational activities in river ecosystems was still safe from non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic impacts due to PTEs exposure from river water and sediment (THI < 1 and TCR value < 1E−04), while the population in the upper Citarum River was not safe from the carcinogenic risk due to PTE exposure from groundwater and soil (TCR > 1E−04). The sensitivity analysis showed that Cd concentration in groundwater is the most influential factor in cancer risk, with a total contribution of 99.9%. Therefore, a reduction in Cd concentration in groundwater is important to reduce cancer risk in the population.
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Abbreviations
- ABSd :
-
Fraction of absorbed contaminant from sediment/soil
- AF in ERA method:
-
Assessment factor
- AF in HHRA method:
-
Adherence factor
- Al:
-
Aluminum
- As:
-
Arsenic
- AT:
-
Averaging time of exposure
- BDL:
-
Below detection limit
- BW:
-
Body weight
- Cd:
-
Cadmium
- CF:
-
Contamination factor
- CFw :
-
Conversion factor for water
- CFs :
-
Conversion factor for soil/sediment
- Cu:
-
Copper
- Cr:
-
Chromium
- CR:
-
Carcinogenic risk
- CSF:
-
Cancer slope factor
- DNA:
-
Deoxyribonucleic acid
- EC:
-
Electrical conductivity
- ECOTOX:
-
ECOTOXicology knowledgebase is a source for locating single chemical toxicity data for aquatic life, terrestrial plants and wildlife
- ED:
-
Exposure duration
- EF:
-
Enrichment factor
- EF in HHRA method:
-
Exposure frequency
- Eh:
-
Redox potential
- ERA:
-
Ecological risk assessment
- ET:
-
Exposure time
- EV:
-
Event of exposure
- Fe:
-
Iron
- GIABS:
-
Gastrointestinal absorption
- H:
-
Height of people
- HC5:
-
Hazard concentration of 5% species affected by specific contaminants
- HCA:
-
Hierarchical cluster analysis
- Hg:
-
Mercury
- HHRA:
-
Human health risk assessment
- HI:
-
Hazard index
- HPI:
-
Heavy metals pollution index
- HQ:
-
Hazard quotient
- I-geo:
-
Index geo-accumulation
- IR:
-
Ingestion rate
- Kp:
-
Constant of dermal permeability
- LQI:
-
Lincoln quality index
- LT:
-
Lifetime exposure for carcinogenic risk
- MCS:
-
Monte Carlo simulation
- MEC:
-
Measured environmental concentration
- mg/Kg:
-
Milligram per kilogram
- mg/L:
-
Milligram per liter
- M-ERM-Q:
-
Mean effect range median quotient
- Mn:
-
Manganese
- mV:
-
Milivolt
- MW:
-
Megawatt
- Ni:
-
Nickel
- NOEC:
-
No observed effect concentration
- ORP:
-
Oxidation–reduction potential
- Pb:
-
Lead
- PEF:
-
Particulate emission factor
- PLI:
-
Pollution load index
- PNEC:
-
Predicted no-effect concentration
- PTEs:
-
Potentially toxic elements
- RAIS:
-
Risk assessment information systems
- RBA:
-
Relative bioavailability factor
- RfC:
-
Reference concentration
- RfD:
-
Reference dose
- SA:
-
Surface skin area which exposed by contaminants
- SSD:
-
Species sensitivity distribution
- TCR:
-
Total cancer risk
- TDS:
-
Total dissolved solid
- THI:
-
Total hazard index
- Ti:
-
Titanium
- USEPA:
-
United States of environmental protection agency
- WHO:
-
World Health Organization
- WQI:
-
Water quality index
- Zn:
-
Zinc
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Astuti, R.D.P., Maria, R., Nurohman, H. et al. Potentially toxic elements contamination in the water resources: an integrated risk assessment approach in the upper Citarum watershed area. Environ Geochem Health 46, 77 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01818-y
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01818-y