Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Elevated radon level in drinking water of Ajodhya Hill Area of West Bengal, India: probable health impact on lung and stomach

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Environmental Geochemistry and Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

A screening survey has been carried out to measure the radon concentration in drinking water at various locations of Ajodhya hill and surrounding areas in Purulia district of West Bengal, India, using AlphaGUARD radon monitor. The obtained 222Rn concentration in ground water varies from 5.71 ± 0.29 to 579.47 ± 23.18 Bq/l with an average of 110.00 ± 6.61 Bq/l. Comparison between our results with the internationally recommended reference levels reveals that drinking of water from the majority of these tube-wells can pose significant health risks to the local people. Correlation study indicates that tube-well depth has significant influence on the radon level in water samples. Using 60 l/yr and 1642.50 l/yr water consumption estimated annual effective radon doses for most of the samples (almost 70% and 96%, respectively) are high compared to the World Health Organization (WHO) and the European Union (EU) Commission prescribed reference dose limit of 100 μSv/yr. Also, the evaluated Excess Lifetime Cancer Risk (ELCR) values associated with the tube-wells are showing serious threat to the health of the locals.

The primary goal of this work is to develop a radon profile map of this area and to find out the possible reasons behind the elevated radon level in ground water. This type of work may play a very crucial role to aware the locals in perspective of human exposure to radon. The local health officials and the water quality regulators of India are requested to take necessary steps for protecting the local people from water radon hazard.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7
Fig. 8

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Abdallah, S. M., Habib, R. R., Nuwayhid, R. Y., Chatila, M., & Katul, G. (2007). Radon measurements in well and spring water in Lebanon. Radiation Measurements, 42(2), 298–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.radmeas.2006.11.004

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Acharya, T., & Nag, S. K. (2013). Study of groundwater prospects of the crystalline rocks in Purulia District, West Bengal, India using remote sensing data. Earth Resources, 1(2), 54–59. https://doi.org/10.12966/er.07.03.2013

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ademola, J. A., & Ojeniran, O. R. (2017). Radon-222 from different sources of water and the assessment of health hazard. Journal of Water and Health, 15(1), 97–102. https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2016.073

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amrani, D. (2002). Natural radioactivity in Algerian bottled mineral waters. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 252(3), 597–600. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015883610854

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, J. N., & Wood, D. F. (1972). Mechanism of radon release in rock matrices and entry into groundwaters. Bath Univ. of Tech Eng., 81, 198–209.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Baidya, T. K. (1992). Apatite-magnetite deposit in the Chhotanagpur gneissic complex, Panrkidh area, Purulia district. West Bengal. Indian J. Geol., 64, 84–95.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bem, H., Plota, U., Staniszewska, M., Bem, E. M., & Mazurek, D. (2014). Radon (222Rn) in underground drinking water supplies of the Southern Greater Poland Region. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 299(3), 1307–1312. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-013-2912-1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Benesty, J., Chen, J., Huang, Y., & Cohen, I. (2009). Pearson correlation coefficient. Noise reduction in speech processing (Vol. 2, pp. 1–4). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bhaya, S., Chakrabarty, A. (2016). Application of geoinformatics in pattern analysis of seditious activity in Purulia district of West Bengal in relation to it’s geographic and socio-economic background. Int J Sci Res Publ, 6(9). http://www.ijsrp.org/research-paper-0916.php?rp=P575816

  • Binesh, A., Mowlavi, A. A., & Mohammadi, S. (2012). Estimation of the effective dose from radon ingestion and inhalation in drinking water sources of Mashhad, Iran. Iran Journal of Radiation Research., 10(1), 37–41.

    Google Scholar 

  • BIS (2012). Indian standard drinking water — specification (Second Revision) IS 10500; 2012. ICS 13.060.20. May 20125. © BIS 2012. http://cgwb.gov.in/documents/wq-standards.pdf

  • Bourai, A. A., Gusain, G. S., Rautela, B. S., Joshi, V., Prasad, G., & Ramola, R. C. (2012). Variations in radon concentration in groundwater of Kumaon Himalaya. India. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 152(1–3), 55–57. https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncs186

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Brutsaert, W. F., Norton, S. A., Hess, C. T., & Williams, J. S. (1981). Geologic and hydrologic factors controlling radon-222 in ground water in Maine. Groundwater, 19(4), 407–417. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-6584.1981.tb03488.x

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Charoensri, A., Siriboonprapob, S., & Sastri, N. (2015). Analysis of radon in shallow-well water: a case study at Phichit subdistrict in Songkhla province, Thailand. In Journal of Physics: Conference Series., 611(1), 012025. https://doi.org/10.1088/1742-6596/611/1/012025

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choubey, V. M., Bartarya, S. K., & Ramola, R. C. (2003). Radon in groundwater of eastern Doon valley. Outer Himalaya. Radiation Measurements, 36(1–6), 401–405. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1350-4487(03)00160-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Choubey, V. M., & Ramola, R. C. (1997). Correlation between geology and radon levels in groundwater, soil and indoor air in Bhilangana Valley, Garhwal Himalaya, India. Environmental Geology, 32(4), 258–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002540050215

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clever, H. L. (1985). Temperature dependency of the diffusion coefficient ‘k.’ Solubility data series, Krypton, Xenon, Radon Gas Solubilities 2 (pp. 463–468). Pergamon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Council Directive 2013/51/EURATOM, (2013). Laying down requirements for the protection of the health of the general public with regard to radioactive substances in water intended for human consumption. Official Journal of the European Union L (296):12–21.

  • D’Cunha, P., Narayana, Y., Karunakara, N., Yashodhara, I., & Kumara, S. (2011). Concentration of 222 Rn in drinking water along coastal Kerala and evaluation of ingestion doses. Radiation Protection and Environment, 34(3), 197. https://doi.org/10.4103/0972-0464.101722

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich, A. M., & Burlingame, G. A. (2015). Critical review and rethinking of USEPA secondary standards for maintaining organoleptic quality of drinking water. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(2), 708–720. https://doi.org/10.1021/es504403t

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dixon, W. J., & Massey, F. J., Jr. (1951). Introduction to statistical analysis. McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duggal, V., Sharma, S., & Mehra, R. (2017). Radon levels in drinking water of Fatehabad district of Haryana, India. Applied Radiation and Isotopes, 123, 36–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apradiso.2017.02.028

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Duggal, V., Sharma, S., & Mehra, R. (2020). Risk assessment of radon in drinking water in Khetri Copper Belt of Rajasthan, India. Chemosphere, 239, 124782. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124782

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • El-Araby, E. H., Soliman, H. A., & Abo-Elmagd, M. (2019). Measurement of radon levels in water and the associated health hazards in Jazan, Saudi Arabia. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 12(1), 31–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/16878507.2019.1594134

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • EU. (2001). Recommendation on the protection of the public against exposure to radon in drinking water supplies. Office Journal of the European Community, 85–88.

  • Folger, P. F., Nyberg, P., Wanty, R. B., & Poeter, E. (1994). Relationships between 222Rn dissolved in ground water supplies and indoor 222Rn concentrations in some Colorado front range houses. Health Physics, 67(3), 245–253.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fonollosa, E., Peñalver, A., Borrull, F., & Aguilar, C. (2016). Radon in spring waters in the south of Catalonia. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 151, 275–281.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fraser, D. F., Gilliam, J. F., Daley, M. J., Le, A. N., & Skalski, G. T. (2001). Explaining leptokurtic movement distributions: Intrapopulation variation in boldness and exploration. The American Naturalist, 158(2), 124–135.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gazi, M., Chowdhury, S., Naskar, A. K., Deb, A., & Ghosh, D. (2022). Alpha radioactivity in human blood and its possible correlation to ailment pattern. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-022-08214-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Geological Quadrangle Map 73I, 1948. Geological Survey of India, Calcutta.

  • Gupta, A. (1998). North singhbhum proterozoic mobile belt, eastern India-A review. Geol. Surv. India Spl. Pub., 55, 195–226.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hall, F. R., Boudette, E. L., & Olszewski, W. J. (2020). Geologic controls and radon occurrence in New England. Radon, radium, and other radioactivity in ground water (pp. 15–30). CRC Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hess, C. T., Michel, J., Horton, T. R., Prichard, H. M., & Coniglio, W. A. (1985). The occurrence of radioactivity in public water supplies in the United States. Health Physics, 48(5), 553–586.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hopkins, K. D., & Weeks, D. L. (1990). Tests for normality and measures of skewness and kurtosis: Their place in research reporting. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 50(4), 717–729.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howard, B. J., Beresford, N. A., Copplestone, D., Telleria, D., Proehl, G., Fesenko, S., & Wells, C. (2013). The IAEA handbook on radionuclide transfer to wildlife. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity., 121, 55–74.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Howard, G., Bartram, J., Water, S., World Health Organization. (2003). Domestic water quantity, service level and health (No. WHO/SDE/WSH/03.02). World Health Organization.

  • ICRP. (1993). International commission on radiological protection. Protection against radon-222 at home and at work. Annals of the ICRP, 23, 2.

    Google Scholar 

  • ICRP. (2010). Conversion coefficients for radiological protection quantities for external radiation exposures. Annals of the ICRP, 40, 2–5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Inácio, M., Soares, S., & Almeida, P. (2017). Radon concentration assessment in water sources of public drinking of Covilhã’s county, Portugal. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 10(2), 135–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Instruments, G. (1998). AlphaGUARD portable radon monitors user manual.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendall, G. M., & Smith, T. J. (2002). Doses to organs and tissues from radon and its decay products. Journal of Radiological Protection, 22(4), 389.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khursheed, A. (2000). Doses to systemic tissues from radon gas. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 88(2), 171–181.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Koray, A., Akkaya, G., Kahraman, A., & Kaynak, G. (2014). Measurements of radon concentrations in waters and soil gas of Zonguldak, Turkey. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 162(3), 375–381.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • LeGrand, H. E. (1987). Radon and radium emanations from fractured crystalline rocks–a conceptual hydrogeological model. Groundwater, 25(1), 59–69.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malakootian, M., & Nejhad, Y. S. (2017). Determination of radon concentration in drinking water of Bam villages and evaluation of the annual effective dose. International Journal of Radiation Research, 15(1), 81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitra, S., Chowdhury, S., Mukherjee, J., Sutradhar, S., Mondal, S., Barman, C., & Deb, A. (2021). Assessment of radon (222Rn) activity in groundwater and soil-gas in Purulia district, West Bengal, India. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 330(3), 1331–1338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-021-07989-1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nasir, T., & Shah, M. (2012). Measurement of annual effective doses of radon from drinking water and dwellings by CR-39 track detectors in Kulachi City of Pakistan. Journal of Basic & Applied Sciences, 8, 528–536.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naskar, A. K., Gazi, M., Barman, C., Chowdhury, S., Mondal, M., Ghosh, D., & Deb, A. (2018). Estimation of underground water radon danger in Bakreswar and Tantloi Geothermal Region, India. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 315(2), 273–283. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10967-017-5668-1

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Naskar, A. K., Gazi, M., Mondal, M., & Deb, A. (2022). Water radon risk in Susunia hill area: An assessment in terms of radiation dose. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(8), 11160–11171. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-16362-4

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nazaroff, W. W., Feustel, H., Nero, A. V., Revzan, K. L., Grimsrud, D. T., Essling, M. A., & Toohey, R. E. (1985). Radon transport into a detached one-story house with a basement. Atmospheric Environment (1967), 19(1), 31–46.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • NCRP. (1984). Evaluation of occupational and environmental exposures to radon and radon daughters in the United States. Report 78. NCRP, Betbesda, MD.

  • Nikolopoulos, D., & Louizi, A. (2008). Study of indoor radon and radon in drinking water in Greece and Cyprus: Implications to exposure and dose. Radiation Measurements, 43(7), 1305–1314.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pinti, D. L., Retailleau, S., Barnetche, D., Moreira, F., Moritz, A. M., Larocque, M., & Valadez, A. (2014). 222Rn activity in groundwater of the St. Lawrence Lowlands, Quebec, eastern Canada: Relation with local geology and health hazard. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 136, 206–217.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Press, W. H., Teukolsky, S. A., Vetterling, W. T., & Flannery, B. P. (1992). Numerical recipes in C. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Radiations, I. (1980). The effects on populations of exposure to low levels of ionizing radiation. https://inis.iaea.org/collection/NCLCollectionStore/_Public/37/004/37004410.pdf

  • Rangaswamy, D. R., Srinivasa, E., Srilatha, M. C., & Sannappa, J. (2016). Measurement of radon concentration in drinking water of Shimoga district, Karnataka, India. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 307(2), 907–916.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ravikumar, P., & Somashekar, R. K. (2018). Distribution of 222Rn in groundwater and estimation of resulting radiation dose to different age groups: A case study from Bangalore City. Human and Ecological Risk Assessment: An International Journal, 24(1), 174–185.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Samet, J. M. (1989). Radon and lung cancer. JNCI: Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 81(10), 745–758. https://doi.org/10.3390/cancers14133142

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shilpa, G. M., Anandaram, B. N., & Mohankumari, T. L. (2017). Measurement of 222Rn concentration in drinking water in the environs of Thirthahalli taluk, Karnataka, India. Journal of Radiation Research and Applied Sciences, 10(3), 262–268.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Somlai, K., Tokonami, S., Ishikawa, T., Vancsura, P., Gáspár, M., Jobbágy, V., & Kovács, T. (2007). 222Rn concentrations of water in the Balaton Highland and in the southern part of Hungary, and the assessment of the resulting dose. Radiation Measurements, 42(3), 491–495.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Steele, J. M. (2004). The Cauchy-Schwarz master class: an introduction to the art of mathematical inequalities. Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stringer, C. E., & Burnett, W. C. (2004). Sample bottle design improvements for radon emanation analysis of natural waters. Health Physics, 87(6), 642–646.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sujo, L. C., Cabrera, M. M., Villalba, L., Villalobos, M. R., Moye, E. T., Leon, M. G., & Aroche, D. S. (2004). Uranium-238 and thorium-232 series concentrations in soil, radon-222 indoor and drinking water concentrations and dose assessment in the city of Aldama, Chihuahua, Mexico. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 77(2), 205–219. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvrad.2004.03.008

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tabar, E., & Yakut, H. (2014). Radon measurements in water samples from the thermal springs of Yalova basin, Turkey. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 299(1), 311–319.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tayyeb, Z. A., Kinsara, A. R., & Farid, S. M. (1998). A study on the radon concentrations in water in Jeddah (Saudi Arabia) and the associated health effects. Journal of Environmental Radioactivity, 38(1), 97–104.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Torgersen, T., Benoit, J., & Mackie, D. (1990). Controls on groundwater Rn-222 concentrations in fractured rock. Geophysical Research Letters, 17(6), 845–848.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNSCEAR. (1988). Effects and risks of ionizing radiation. United Nations, United Nations scientific committee on the effects of atomic radiation 1988 report to the general assembly, with annexes. https://www.unscear.org/docs/publications/1988/UNSCEAR_1988_Report.pdf

  • UNSCEAR. (2000). Effects of Ionizing radiation (pp. 453–487). United Nations.

    Google Scholar 

  • UNSCEAR. (2008). Effects of ionizing radiation, United Nations scientific committee on the effects of atomic radiation (UNSCEAR) 2006 Report, Volume I: Report to the general assembly, scientific annexes A and B. United Nations. https://www.unscear.org/unscear/en/publications/2008_1.html

  • USEPA. (1991). Federal register 40 parts 141 and 142: National primary drinking water regulations; radionuclides: proposed rule.

  • USEPA, W. (2018). Edition of the drinking water standards and health advisories tables: United States environmental protection agency. Off Water.

  • USNRC. (1999). Risk assessment of radon in drinking water. Committee on risk assessment of exposure to radon in drinking water, board on radiation effects research, commission on life sciences, National Research Council.

  • Vaupotic, J., Krizman, M., Planinić, J., Pezdic, J., Adamic, K., Stegnar, P., & Kobal, I. (1994). Systematic indoor radon and gamma measurements in kindergartens and play schools in Slovenia. Health Physics, 66(5), 550–556.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vinson, D. S., Vengosh, A., Hirschfeld, D., & Dwyer, G. S. (2009). Relationships between radium and radon occurrence and hydrochemistry in fresh groundwater from fractured crystalline rocks, North Carolina (USA). Chemical Geology, 260(3–4), 159–171.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wanty, R. B., Lawrence, E. P., & Gundersen, L. (1992). A theoretical model for the flux of radon from rock to ground water. Geological Society of America Special Paper, 271, 73–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • WHO. (2009). WHO handbook on indoor radon: a public health perspective. World Health Organization. https://www.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241547673

  • WHO. (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality. World Health Organization, 216, 303–304.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xinwei, L. (2006). Analysis of radon concentration in drinking water in Baoji (China) and the associated health effects. Radiation Protection Dosimetry, 121(4), 452–455. https://doi.org/10.1093/rpd/ncl048

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Yalim, H. A., Akkurt, I., Ozdemir, F. B., Unal, R., Sandikcioglu, A., & Akkurt, A. (2007). The measurement of radon and radium concentrations in well water in the Afyonkarahisar area of Turkey. Indoor and Built Environment, 16(1), 77–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X06074731

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This work has been supported by the financial assistance of the DST FIST project of the department of Physics, Jadavpur University and the Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan 2.0 (RUSA) program of Jadavpur University. Special thanks to the residents of the study area for their support and cooperation during the field work.

Funding

The authors acknowledge the financial support given by Jadavpur University, Physics Department through the Rashtriya Uchchatar Shiksha Abhiyan 2.0 (RUSA 2.0) program and the DST FIST project.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Physics, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700032, India

    Arindam Kumar Naskar, Mahasin Gazi, Mitali Mondal & Argha Deb

  2. School of Studies in Environmental Radiation and Archaeological Sciences, Jadavpur University, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700032, India

    Arindam Kumar Naskar, Mahasin Gazi, Mitali Mondal & Argha Deb

  3. Department of Physics, Bangabasi Evening College, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700009, India

    Arindam Kumar Naskar

  4. Apollo Multispeciality Hospitals, 58 Canal Circular Road, Kolkata, West Bengal, 700054, India

    Mahasin Gazi

Authors
  1. Arindam Kumar Naskar
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Mahasin Gazi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mitali Mondal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Argha Deb
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

AKN, MG, MM and AD contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by AKN and MG. The first draft of the manuscript was written by AKN and after that AD commented on the later versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Argha Deb.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent to publish

All of the authors listed in the manuscript have agreed to be authors, have read and accepted the work and have given their approval to the manuscript’s submission and future publication.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Naskar, A.K., Gazi, M., Mondal, M. et al. Elevated radon level in drinking water of Ajodhya Hill Area of West Bengal, India: probable health impact on lung and stomach. Environ Geochem Health 45, 8153–8168 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01707-4

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01707-4

Keywords

Search

Navigation