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Natural carbon mineralization and its control on the geochemical evolution of coal-based aquifers in the Salt Range, Punjab, Pakistan

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Abstract

Hydrochemical analysis of the Salt Range was conducted to understand carbon weathering and its impact on groundwater evolution within the complex geological framework of Punjab. Our results showed that groundwater samples were alkaline with a pH range of 7.0–8.6 and 7.8–8.8 for the eastern Salt Range (ESR) and Trans-Indus Salt Range (TSR), respectively, while that of the Central Salt Range (CSR) was acidic to moderately alkaline ranging between 5.7 and 7.5. The water types of Ca-Mg-HCO3, Ca–Mg–Cl, and Ca–Cl2 were the dominant hydro-chemical facies in ESR and CSR sites. However, groundwater of the TSR site falls under Ca–Mg–Cl, Ca–Cl2, and mixed types of Ca–Mg–SO4. Our new findings suggest that groundwater chemistry is primarily controlled by rock dominance and reverse ion exchange reaction, followed by evapotranspiration processes. The wells of ESR, CSR, and TSR were reported with higher levels of Fe and Zn. Regarding the suitability for irrigation, sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), magnesium adsorption ratio (MAR), sodium percentage (Na%), Kelley’s ratio (KR), and potential salinity (PS) at all three sites (ESR, TSR, and CSR) had the potential to become a salinity hazard. The conceptual model of geochemical evolution shows that both local and regional salinization is driven by local geology and intensive coal mining activities. The neutralization capacity of the parent geological formation buffers the acidity and lowers the overall trace element enrichment. The potential of natural weathering could be further explored as a solution to coal mining’s impact on the environment.

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Acknowledgements

This manuscript is part of the first author’s Ph.D. Thesis. We are thankful to Higher Education Commission (HEC) Pakistan for funding under their International Research Support Initiative Program (IRSIP), Environmental Hydro geochemistry Laboratory, Department of Environmental Science, Quaid-i-Azam University, Islamabad, University of Leeds, UK, and the Environment & Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter, for technical assistance in performing laboratory analysis.

Funding

We thank the Higher Education Commission (HEC) Pakistan for funding under their International Research Support Initiative Program (IRSIP) for providing IRSIP fellowship to conduct lab analysis at the University of Leeds, UK, and the University of Exeter.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Environmental Geochemistry Laboratory, Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-I-Azam University, Islamabad, 45320, Pakistan

    Noshin Masood & Abida Farooqi

  2. Environment and Sustainability Institute and Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, Penryn, TR710 9EZ, UK

    Karen A. Hudson-Edwards

  3. School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China

    Tehseen Zafar

  4. Institute of Geochemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guiyang, 550081, China

    Tehseen Zafar

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  1. Noshin Masood
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  4. Abida Farooqi
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Contributions

NM (Environmental Geochemistry Laboratory, Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University) has designed the study, collected data, performed the analytical part, drafted, and revised the manuscript. Dr. TZ (School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University) helped in revising the manuscript. Prof. KH-E (Professor in sustainable mining at Camborne School of Mines and Environment and Sustainability Institute, University of Exeter,) assisted in formal analysis and investigation for lab analysis. Dr. AF (Associate Professor in the Environmental Geochemistry Laboratory, Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Quaid-i-Azam University) provides technical and financial assistance in developing the whole manuscript. She is the supervisor of the first author and helped her from conceptualizing to finalizing her research work.

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Correspondence to Noshin Masood or Abida Farooqi.

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Masood, N., Hudson-Edwards, K.A., Zafar, T. et al. Natural carbon mineralization and its control on the geochemical evolution of coal-based aquifers in the Salt Range, Punjab, Pakistan. Environ Geochem Health 45, 7033–7050 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-023-01621-9

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