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Geochemical and mineralogical composition of geophagic materials from Baringo town, Kenyan Rift Valley and their possible health effects on the consumers

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Abstract

Consumption of geophagic materials can be detrimental to human health. These materials, which are harvested from the natural environment, can contain high concentrations of potentially harmful elements and minerals. In this study, mineralogical and geochemical investigation of geophagic rock materials consumed by the local population in Baringo town, in Kenya, was conducted to assess its possible health effects. Twelve representative samples were purchased from an open market in Baringo town for this investigation. Optical and scanning electron microscope as well as X-ray diffractometer was used to determine the mineralogy as well as the morphology of the minerals present in the studied samples. The material is composed of about 10 to 20% coarse to very coarse (0.38–3.00 mm) and semi-rounded to angular crystals of quartz, feldspars, and amphiboles, together with lithic fragments occurring in a fine-grained matrix. X-ray fluorescence and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry were used to determine the major and trace elements composition, respectively. The analyses show that elements such as Si, Fe, Mn, Al, Hg, Cr, Cd, and Pb are particularly above their recommended daily allowances. This study assumes 100% bioavailability of elements in the geophagic materials, in the absence of a bioaccessibility test. Therefore, the consumption of some of the revealed elements, based on this assumption, can be detrimental due to possible short- and/or long-term health effects. From a mineralogical point of view, the presence of feldspar and quartz with Moh’s hardness of 6 and 7, respectively, and their coarse and angular morphology may cause damage to the dental enamel and the gastrointestinal tract. From a geochemical point of view, the high concentrations of the revealed chemical elements can have various health effects including, but not limited to neurotoxic effects, which are critical in prenatal exposure, neurodegenerative diseases, and cancer amongst other serious diseases.

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Fig. 1

Modified from Mutonga (2014) and Beicip (1987)

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Data availability

The authors confirm that the data generated during this study is presented in the manuscript. However, additional data generated, such as SEM images, can be available upon request from the corresponding author (P. Gevera).

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Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to the University of Johannesburg and the Faculty of Science for the financial support to the study through UJ-URC/FRC funds and the National Research Foundation, Incentive Funding for Rated Researchers to HM, Grant No 91059. We are also grateful to the anonymous reviewers and the coordinating editor for their comments and suggestions which improved the manuscript. Ms Selma Kambunga is thanked for her comments on the first draft which helped to improve the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the National Research Foundation (NRF) through an incentive fund for rated researcher grand to Prof H. Mouri, the University of Johannesburg UJ-URC/FRC funds, and the University of Johannesburg’s Faculty of Science Merit Bursary to P. Gevera.

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  1. Department of Geology, University of Johannesburg, P.O. Box 524, Johannesburg, Kingsway, 2006, Auckland Park, South Africa

    Patrick Kirita Gevera & Hassina Mouri

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  1. Patrick Kirita Gevera
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  2. Hassina Mouri
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PG and HM were both involved in the conceptualization, design, and methodology stage of the project. HM acquired the funding and was also the project administrator. PG conducted the field sampling, lab analyses and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. Both HM and PG were involved in the data analysis and improvement of the final manuscript. Both authors were involved in the corrections of the manuscript and have approved its resubmission.

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Correspondence to Patrick Kirita Gevera.

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Gevera, P.K., Mouri, H. Geochemical and mineralogical composition of geophagic materials from Baringo town, Kenyan Rift Valley and their possible health effects on the consumers. Environ Geochem Health 43, 4831–4846 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-00960-9

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