Abstract
Air pollution is a serious environmental problem in China. Birth defects are particularly vulnerable to outdoor air pollution. Our study was to evaluate the association between short-term exposure to air pollutants and the risk of birth defects. Daily data including the air pollutants, meteorological characteristics, and birth records were obtained in Hefei, China, during January 2013 to December 2016. The findings showed that PM2.5, PM10, SO2, NO2, and O3 exposures were positively correlated with the risk of birth defects. Maternal exposure to PM2.5 and SO2 during the 4th to 13th gestational weeks was observed to have a significant association with the risk of birth defects, with the maximum effect in the 7th or 8th week for PM2.5 and the maximum effect in the 7th week for SO2. The positively significant exposure windows were the 4th to 14th weeks for PM10, the 4th to 12th weeks for NO2, and the 26th to 35th weeks for O3, respectively. The strongest associations were observed in the 8th week for PM10, the 7th week for NO2, and in the 31st or 32nd week for O3. The findings of this study demonstrate that air pollutants increase the risk of birth defects among women during pregnancy in Hefei, China, which provide evidence for improving the health of pregnant women and neonates in developing countries, and uncovered potential opportunities to reduce or prevent birth defects by proactive measures during pregnancy.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Abbreviations
- DLNM:
-
Distributed lag nonlinear model
- RR:
-
Relative risk
- 95%CI:
-
95% Confidential intervals
- CHDs:
-
Congenital heart defects
- CPO:
-
Cleft palate only
- EOM:
-
Extractable organic matter
- NAQS:
-
The National Ambient Air Quality Standard
- DLM:
-
Distributed lag model
- PM:
-
Particulate matter
- BDNF:
-
Brain-derived neurotrophic factor
- ROS:
-
Reactive oxygen species
References
Almon, S. (1965). The distributed lag between capital appropriations and expenditures. Econometrica, 33(1), 178–196.
Armstrong, B. (2006). Models for the relationship between ambient temperature and daily mortality. Epidemiology, 17(6), 624–631. https://doi.org/10.1097/01.ede.0000239732.50999.8f
Barouki, R., Gluckman, P. D., Grandjean, P., Hanson, M., & Heindel, J. J. (2012). Developmental origins of non-communicable disease: Implications for research and public health. Environmental Health, 11, 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069x-11-42
Bhargava, A., Shukla, A., Bunkar, N., Shandilya, R., Lodhi, L., Kumari, R., Gupta, P. K., Rahman, A., Chaudhury, K., Tiwari, R., Goryacheva, I. Y., & Mishra, P. K. (2019). Exposure to ultrafine particulate matter induces NF-κβ mediated epigenetic modifications. Environmental Pollution, 252(Pt A), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2019.05.065
Bhargava, A., Tamrakar, S., Aglawe, A., Lad, H., Srivastava, R. K., Mishra, D. K., Tiwari, R., Chaudhury, K., Goryacheva, I. Y., & Mishra, P. K. (2018). Ultrafine particulate matter impairs mitochondrial redox homeostasis and activates phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase mediated DNA damage responses in lymphocytes. Environmental Pollution, 234, 406–419. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.093
Chen, R., Yin, P., Meng, X., Liu, C., Wang, L., Xu, X., Ross, J. A., Tse, L. A., Zhao, Z., Kan, H., & Zhou, M. (2017). Fine particulate air pollution and daily mortality. A nationwide analysis in 272 chinese cities. American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine, 196(1), 73–81. https://doi.org/10.1164/rccm.201609-1862OC
Cho, A. K., Sioutas, C., Miguel, A. H., Kumagai, Y., Schmitz, D. A., Singh, M., Eiguren-Fernandez, A., & Froines, J. R. (2005). Redox activity of airborne particulate matter at different sites in the Los Angeles Basin. Environmental Research, 99(1), 40–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2005.01.003
Danieli, C., Cohen, S., Liu, A., Pilote, L., Guo, L., Beauchamp, M. E., Marelli, A. J., & Abrahamowicz, M. (2019). Flexible modeling of the association between cumulative exposure to low-dose ionizing radiation from cardiac procedures and risk of cancer in adults with congenital heart disease. American Journal of Epidemiology, 188(8), 1552–1562. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwz114
Das, A. B., Seddon, A. R., O’Connor, K. M., & Hampton, M. B. (2021). Regulation of the epigenetic landscape by immune cell oxidants. Free Radical Biology & Medicine. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2020.12.453
Duan, J., Hu, H., Zhang, Y., Feng, L., Shi, Y., Miller, M. R., & Sun, Z. (2017). Multi-organ toxicity induced by fine particulate matter PM(2.5) in zebrafish (Danio rerio) model. Chemosphere, 180, 24–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.04.013
Gasparrini, A., & Armstrong, B. (2010). Time series analysis on the health effects of temperature: advancements and limitations. Environmental Research, 110(6), 633–638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2010.06.005
Gasparrini, A., Armstrong, B., & Kenward, M. G. (2010). Distributed lag non-linear models. Statistics in Medicine, 29(21), 2224–2234. https://doi.org/10.1002/sim.3940
Gasparrini, A., Scheipl, F., Armstrong, B., & Kenward, M. G. (2017). A penalized framework for distributed lag non-linear models. Biometrics, 73(3), 938–948. https://doi.org/10.1111/biom.12645
Gorai, A. K., Tchounwou, P. B., Biswal, S. S., & Tuluri, F. (2018). Spatio-temporal variation of particulate matter (PM(2.5)) concentrations and its health impacts in a Mega City, Delhi in India. Environmental Health Insights, 12, 1178630218792861.
Guan, T., Xue, T., Gao, S., Hu, M., Liu, X., Qiu, X., Liu, X., & Zhu, T. (2019). Acute and chronic effects of ambient fine particulate matter on preterm births in Beijing, China: A time-series model. Science of the Total Environment, 650(Pt 2), 1671–1677. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.279
Guan, W. J., Zheng, X. Y., Chung, K. F., & Zhong, N. S. (2016). Impact of air pollution on the burden of chronic respiratory diseases in China: time for urgent action. Lancet, 388(10054), 1939–1951. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31597-5
Happo, M., Markkanen, A., Markkanen, P., Jalava, P., Kuuspalo, K., Leskinen, A., Sippula, O., Lehtinen, K., Jokiniemi, J., & Hirvonen, M. R. (2013). Seasonal variation in the toxicological properties of size-segregated indoor and outdoor air particulate matter. Toxicol In Vitro, 27(5), 1550–1561. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tiv.2013.04.001
He, B., Chen, F., Yan, L., Huang, J., Liu, F., Qiu, Y., Lin, L., Zhang, Z., & Cai, L. (2016). Independent and joint exposure to passive smoking and cooking oil fumes on oral cancer in Chinese women: A hospital-based case-control study. Acta Otolaryngology, 136(10), 1074–1078. https://doi.org/10.1080/00016489.2016.1185539
Huang, C. C., Chen, B. Y., Pan, S. C., Ho, Y. L., & Guo, Y. L. (2019). Prenatal exposure to PM2.5 and Congenital Heart Diseases in Taiwan. Science of the Total Environment, 655, 880–886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.11.284
Huang, K., Ding, K., Yang, X. J., Hu, C. Y., Jiang, W., Hua, X. G., Liu, J., Cao, J. Y., Zhang, T., Kan, X. H., & Zhang, X. J. (2020). Association between short-term exposure to ambient air pollutants and the risk of tuberculosis outpatient visits: A time-series study in Hefei, China. Environmental Research, 184, 109343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.109343
Jain, V., Dey, S., & Chowdhury, S. (2017). Ambient PM(2.5) exposure and premature mortality burden in the holy city Varanasi. India. Environ Pollut, 226, 182–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.04.028
Karimi-Boroujeni, M., Zahedi-Amiri, A., & Coombs, K. M. (2021). Embryonic origins of virus-induced hearing loss: Overview of molecular etiology. Viruses. https://doi.org/10.3390/v13010071
Kianisadr, M., Ghaderpoori, M., Jafari, A., Kamarehie, B., & Karami, M. (2018). Zoning of air quality index (PM(10) and PM(2.5)) by Arc-GIS for Khorramabad city. Iran. Data Brief, 19, 1131–1141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2018.05.063
Kim, O. J., Ha, E. H., Kim, B. M., Seo, J. H., Park, H. S., Jung, W. J., et al. (2007). PM10 and pregnancy outcomes: A hospital-based cohort study of pregnant women in Seoul. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 49(12), 1394–1402. https://doi.org/10.1097/JOM.0b013e3181594859
Kodavanti, P. R. S., Valdez, M., Richards, J. E., Agina-Obu, D. I., Phillips, P. M., Jarema, K. A., & Kodavanti, U. P. (2021). Ozone-induced changes in oxidative stress parameters in brain regions of adult, middle-age, and senescent Brown Norway rats. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 410, 115351. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2020.115351
Lavigne, E., Lima, I., Hatzopoulou, M., Van Ryswyk, K., Decou, M. L., Luo, W., van Donkelaar, A., Martin, R. V., Chen, H., Stieb, D. M., Crighton, E., Gasparrini, A., Elten, M., Yasseen III, A. S., Burnett, R. T., & Weichentha, M. W. S. (2019). Spatial variations in ambient ultrafine particle concentrations and risk of congenital heart defects. Environmental International, 130, 104953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.104953
Lee, H., Honda, Y., Hashizume, M., Guo, Y. L., Wu, C. F., Kan, H., Jung, K., Lim, Y. H., Yi, S., & Kim, H. (2015). Short-term exposure to fine and coarse particles and mortality: A multicity time-series study in East Asia. Environmental Pollution, 207, 43–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2015.08.036
Li, Z., Ma, J., Li, X., Chan, M. T. V., Wu, W. K. K., Wu, Z., & Shen, J. (2019). Aberrantly expressed long non-coding RNAs in air pollution-induced congenital defects. Journal of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, 23(11), 7717–7725. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcmm.14645
Li, Z., Ma, J., Shen, J., Chan, M. T. V., Wu, W. K. K., & Wu, Z. (2019b). Differentially expressed circular RNAs in air pollution-exposed rat embryos. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 26(33), 34421–34429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06489-w
Liang, Z., Wu, L., Fan, L., & Zhao, Q. (2014). Ambient air pollution and birth defects in Haikou city. Hainan province. BMC Pediatr, 14, 283. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-014-0283-6
Lin, Y. T., Lee, Y. L., Jung, C. R., Jaakkola, J. J., & Hwang, B. F. (2014). Air pollution and limb defects: A matched-pairs case-control study in Taiwan. Environmental Research, 132, 273–280. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.04.028
Liu, D., Deng, Q., Zhou, Z., Lin, Y., & Tao, J. (2018). Variation trends of fine particulate matter concentration in Wuhan City from 2013 to 2017. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071487
Shaoyou, L., Kang, L., Liao, S., Ma, S., Zhou, L., Chen, D., & Yingxin, Y. (2018). Phthalates in PM2.5 from Shenzhen, China and human exposure assessment factored their bioaccessibility in lung. Chemosphere, 202, 726–732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.03.155
Luan, G., Yin, P., Li, T., Wang, L., & Zhou, M. (2017). The years of life lost on cardiovascular disease attributable to ambient temperature in China. Sci Rep, 7(1), 13531. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-13225-2
Mashhadi Abdolahi, H., Kargar Maher, M. H., Afsharnia, F., & Dastgiri, S. (2014). Prevalence of congenital anomalies: a community-based study in the northwest of iran. ISRN Pediatr, 2014, 920940. https://doi.org/10.1155/2014/920940
Morokuma, S., Michikawa, T., Yamazaki, S., Nitta, H., & Kato, K. (2017). Association between exposure to air pollution during pregnancy and false positives in fetal heart rate monitoring. Sci Rep, 7(1), 12421. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-12663-2
Morris, S. K., Farrar, D. S., Miller, S. P., Ofner, M., Bitnun, A., Nelson, C. R. M., Shevell, M., Moore, A. M., Tataryn, J., Evans, J. A., Zipursky, A. R., & Hepburn, C. M. (2021). Population-based surveillance of severe microcephaly and congenital Zika syndrome in Canada. Archives of Disease in Childhood. https://doi.org/10.1136/archdischild-2020-320968
Nagar, P. K., Singh, D., Sharma, M., Kumar, A., Aneja, V. P., George, M. P., Agarwal, N., & Shukla, S. P. (2017). Characterization of PM(25) in Delhi: role and impact of secondary aerosol, burning of biomass, and municipal solid waste and crustal matter. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 24(32), 25179–25189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-0171-3
Obeid, R., Holzgreve, W., & Pietrzik, K. (2019). Folate supplementation for prevention of congenital heart defects and low birth weight: an update. Cardiovasc Diagn Ther, 9(Suppl 2), S424-s433. https://doi.org/10.21037/cdt.2019.02.03
Ott, L. C., Appleton, H. J., Shi, H., Keener, K., & Mellata, M. (2021). High voltage atmospheric cold plasma treatment inactivates Aspergillus flavus spores and deoxynivalenol toxin. Food Microbiology, 95, 103669. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2020.103669
Pedersen, M., Garne, E., Hansen-Nord, N., Hjortebjerg, D., Ketzel, M., Raaschou-Nielsen, O., Andersen, A. M. N., & Sørensen, M. (2017). Exposure to air pollution and noise from road traffic and risk of congenital anomalies in the Danish National Birth Cohort. Environmental Research, 159, 39–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.07.031
Ren, S., Haynes, E., Hall, E., Hossain, M., Chen, A., Muglia, L., Long, L., & DeFranco, E. (2018). Periconception exposure to air pollution and risk of congenital malformations. The Journal of Pediatrics, 193, 76-84.e76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpeds.2017.09.076
Rodopoulou, S., Samoli, E., Chalbot, M. G., & Kavouras, I. G. (2015). Air pollution and cardiovascular and respiratory emergency visits in Central Arkansas: A time-series analysis. Science of the Total Environment, 536, 872–879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.06.056
Saenen, N. D., Plusquin, M., Bijnens, E., Janssen, B. G., Gyselaers, W., Cox, B., Fierens, F., Molenberghs, G., Penders, J., Vrijens, K., De Boever, P., & Nawrot, T. S. (2015). In utero fine particle air pollution and placental expression of genes in the brain-derived neurotrophic factor signaling pathway: An ENVIRONAGE birth cohort study. Environmental Health Perspective, 123(8), 834–840. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1408549
Salavati, N., Strak, M., Burgerhof, J. G. M., de Walle, H. E. K., Erwich, J., & Bakker, M. K. (2018). The association of air pollution with congenital anomalies: An exploratory study in the northern Netherlands. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 221(7), 1061–1067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2018.07.008
Sherbakov, T., Malig, B., Guirguis, K., Gershunov, A., & Basu, R. (2018). Ambient temperature and added heat wave effects on hospitalizations in California from 1999 to 2009. Environmental Research, 160, 83–90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2017.08.052
Sixty-Third World Health Assembly, W H O. (2010). Human organ and tissue transplantation. Resolution WHA 63.22 of the Sixty-Third World Health Assembly. Cell Tissue Bank, 11(4), 411–412.
Slezakova, K., Castro, D., Delerue-Matos, C., Morais, S., & Pereira Mdo, C. (2014). Levels and risks of particulate-bound PAHs in indoor air influenced by tobacco smoke: a field measurement. Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 21(6), 4492–4501. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-013-2391-5
Strand, L. B., Barnett, A. G., & Tong, S. (2011). Methodological challenges when estimating the effects of season and seasonal exposures on birth outcomes. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 11, 49. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-11-49
Sui, X., Zhang, J., Zhang, Q., Sun, S., Lei, R., Zhang, C., Cheng, H., Ding, L., Ding, R., Xiao, C., Li, X., & Cao, J. (2020). The short-term effect of PM(2.5)/O(3) on daily mortality from 2013 to 2018 in Hefei China. Environmental Geochemistry and Health. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-020-00689-x
Tanwar, V., Adelstein, J. M., Grimmer, J. A., Youtz, D. J., Sugar, B. P., & Wold, L. E. (2017). PM(2.5) exposure in utero contributes to neonatal cardiac dysfunction in mice. Environmental Pollution, 230, 116–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2017.06.035
Tsai, J. H., Chang, L. P., & Chiang, H. L. (2014). Airborne pollutant characteristics in an urban, industrial and agricultural complex metroplex with high emission loading and ammonia concentration. Science of the Total Environment, 494–495, 74–83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2014.06.120
Tsangari, H., Paschalidou, A. K., Kassomenos, A. P., Vardoulakis, S., Heaviside, C., Georgiou, K. E., & Yamasaki, E. N. (2016). Extreme weather and air pollution effects on cardiovascular and respiratory hospital admissions in Cyprus. Science of the Total Environment, 542(Pt A), 247–253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2015.10.106
Wang, L., Xiang, X., Mi, B., Song, H., Dong, M., Zhang, S., Bi, Y., Zhao, Y., Li, Q., Zhang, Q., Zhang, L., Yan, H., Wang, D., & Dang, S. (2019). Association between early prenatal exposure to ambient air pollution and birth defects: evidence from newborns in Xi’an China. Journal of Public Health (Oxf), 41(3), 494–501. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy137
Wilson, A., Chiu, Y. M., Hsu, H. L., Wright, R. O., Wright, R. J., & Coull, B. A. (2017). Potential for bias when estimating critical windows for air pollution in children’s health. American Journal of Epidemiology, 186(11), 1281–1289. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwx184
Yang, X., Jiang, L., Zhao, W., Xiong, Q., Zhao, W., & Yan, X. (2018). Comparison of Ground-Based PM2.5 and PM10 Concentrations in China, India, and the U.S. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph15071382
Yu, H., Wang, Y., Peng, Q., Shao, Y., Duan, C., Zhu, Y., Dong, S., Li, C., Shi, Y., Zhang, N., Zheng, Y., Chen, Y., Jiang, Q., Zhong, P., & Zhou, Y. (2020). Influence of coarse particulate matter on chickenpox in Jiading District, Shanghai, 2009–2018: A distributed lag non-linear time series analysis. Environmental Research, 190, 110039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110039
Zhang, B., Liang, S., Zhao, J., Qian, Z., Bassig, B. A., Yang, R., Zhang, Y., Ke, H., Shunqing, X., Zheng, T., & Yang, S. (2016). Maternal exposure to air pollutant PM2.5 and PM10 during pregnancy and risk of congenital heart defects. Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology, 26(4), 422–427. https://doi.org/10.1038/jes.2016.1
Zhang, B., Zhao, J., Yang, R., Qian, Z., Liang, S., Bassig, B. A., Zhang, Y., Ke, H., Shunqing, X., Dong, G., Zheng, T., & Yang, S. (2016). Ozone and other air pollutants and the risk of congenital heart defects. Scientific Reports, 6, 34852. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep34852
Zhang, H., Yao, Y., Chen, Y., Yue, C., Chen, J., Tong, J., Jiang, Y., & Chen, T. (2016). Crosstalk between AhR and wnt/β-catenin signal pathways in the cardiac developmental toxicity of PM2.5 in zebrafish embryos. Toxicology, 355–356, 31–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2016.05.014
Zhang, J. Y., Wu, Q. J., Huang, Y. H., Li, J., Liu, S., Chen, Y. L., Li, L. L., Jiang, C. Z., & Chen, Z. J. (2020). Association between maternal exposure to ambient PM(10) and neural tube defects: A case-control study in Liaoning Province China. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 225, 113453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2020.113453
Zhao, J., Zhang, B., Yang, S., Mei, H., Qian, Z., Liang, S., Zhang, Y., Ke, H., Tan, Y., Xian, H., Belue, R., Jordan, S. S., Shunqing, X., Zheng, T., & Yukai, D. (2018). Maternal exposure to ambient air pollutant and risk of oral clefts in Wuhan, China. Environmental Pollution, 238(624), 630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2018.03.053
Zhou, Y., Gilboa, S. M., Herdt, M. L., Lupo, P. J., Flanders, W. D., Liu, Y., et al. (2017). Maternal exposure to ozone and PM2.5 and the prevalence of orofacial clefts in four U.S. states. Environmental Research, 153, 35–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2016.11.007
Zhu, S., Xia, L., Wu, J., Chen, S., Chen, F., Zeng, F., Chen, Xiuwei, Chen, C., Xia, Y., Zhao, X., & Zhang, J. (2018). Ambient air pollutants are associated with newly diagnosed tuberculosis: A time-series study in Chengdu, China. Science of the Total Environment, 631–632, 47–55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.03.017
Zhu, Y., Zhang, C., Liu, D., Grantz, K. L., Wallace, M., & Mendola, P. (2015). Maternal ambient air pollution exposure preconception and during early gestation and offspring congenital orofacial defects. Environmental Research, 140, 714–720. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2015.06.002
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank all the staff members at the Department of Occupational Health and Environmental Health and Department of Teaching Center for Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Anhui Medical University, for their strong support of this study.
Funding
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 81872580), the Natural Science Foundation of Anhui Province (No. 1708085MH220), Anhui Province Science and Technology Innovation Project Demonstration Project (No. 201707d08050003), the Foundation of Natural Science for Colleges and Universities in Anhui Province (No. KJ2018A0167), the Project Foundation for the Young Talents in Colleges of Anhui Province (No. gxyq2017003), the Grant for Scientific Research of BSKY from Anhui Medical University (No. XJ201621), the Student's Platform for Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program of China (No. 201810366031), and the “Early Contact scientific Research Training” Training Program of Anhui Medical University (No. 2019ZQKY71).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Shu Sun and Qi Zhang are co-first authors.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Sun, S., Zhang, Q., Sui, X. et al. Associations between air pollution exposure and birth defects: a time series analysis. Environ Geochem Health 43, 4379–4394 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-00886-2
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-021-00886-2