Abstract
There has been a marked increase in attention to educators’ well-being since the pandemic. The majority of this research activity, however, has been focused on the well-being of early childhood teachers while the challenges of early childhood leaders have gone largely undocumented. Using a holistic conceptualization of leader well-being along with the Job-Demands-Resources (JD-R) framework, the purpose of this study was to examine the well-being and working conditions of early childhood leaders in the U.S. To this end, we examine descriptive data on various aspects of the working conditions and physical, psychological, and professional well-being of 547 leaders (directors and associate directors) in center-based settings (ECE) as well as 667 elementary/primary principals nationwide. Overall, we found that ECE center-based leaders were paid 60% less than their K-12 counterparts but reported significantly longer tenure in the profession and in their current school. Both groups reported high workloads, working hours well above the standard 40-h workweek, and few opportunities for professional growth, coaching, and mentoring opportunities. The physical health of both groups was poor; obesity, sedentary behavior, and low physical activity were prevalent. A significant proportion of leaders (40%) were at high risk for depression and exhibited moderate burnout. Despite high demands and poor physical and psychological well-being, both groups had high job satisfaction, but also low intent-to-leave and feelings of isolation.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Change history
29 May 2024
The in-text reference citations are arranged in alpha order and corrected spacing error.
References
Abel, M. B., Talan, T., & Magid, M. (2018). Closing the leadership gap: 2018 status report on early childhood program leadership in the United States. McCormick Center for Early Childhood Leadership.
Ackerman, D. J. (2008). Coaching as part of a pilot quality rating scale initiative: Challenges to—and supports for—the change-making process. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 10(2). http://ecrp.uiuc.edu/v10n2/ackerman.html
Andresen, E. M., Malmgren, J. A., Carter, W. B., & Patrick, D. L. (1994). Screening for depression in well older adults: Evaluation of a short form of the CES-D. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 10(2), 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(18)30622-6
Andrew, Y. (2015). What we feel and what we do: Emotional capital in early childhood work. Early Years, 35(4), 351–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/09575146.2015.1077206
Apple, M. W. (1985). Teaching and “women’s work”: A comparative historical and ideological analysis. Teachers College Record, 86(3), 455–473. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146818508600306
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2007). The job demands-resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22, 309–328. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2017). Job demands–resources theory: Taking stock and looking forward. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 22(3), 273–285. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000056
Bakker, A. B., & Demerouti, E. (2018). Multiple levels in job demands-resources theory: Implications for employee well-being and performance. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.), Handbook of well-being (pp. 593–604). DEF Publishers.
Bauer, S. C., Silver, L., & Schwartzer, J. (2019). The impact of isolation on new principals’ persistence: Evidence from a southern US state. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 47(3), 383–399. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143217739359
Beausaert, S., Froehlich, D. E., Riley, P., & Gallant, A. (2023). What about school principals’ well-being? The role of social capital. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 51(2), 405–421. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143221991853
Berkovich, I., & Eyal, O. (2015). Educational leaders and emotions: An international review of empirical evidence 1992–2012. Review of Educational Research, 85(1), 129–167. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654314550046
Booth, M. (2000). Assessment of physical activity: An international perspective. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 71(S2), 114–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2000.11082794
Bosire, J. P. O., Gallagher, K. C., Garrett, A. L., & Babchuk, W. (2023). Early childhood leadership well-being: A phenomenological examination of workplace stress and supports. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 21(4), 412–425. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X231164131
Brown, W. J., Ford, J. H., Burton, N. W., Marshall, A. L., & Dobson, A. J. (2005). Prospective study of physical activity and depressive symptoms in middle-aged women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 29(4), 265–272. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2005.06.009
Brunner Huber, L. R. (2007). Validity of self-reported height and weight in women of reproductive age. Maternal and Child Health Journal, 11, 137–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10995-006-0157-0
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2023). Occupational outlook handbook: Childcare workers. Retrieved from: https://www.bls.gov/ooh/personal-care-and-service/childcare-workers.htm
Burke, L. E., Ma, J., Azar, K. M., Bennett, G. G., Peterson, E. D., Zheng, Y., Riley, W., Stephens, J., et al. (2015). Current science on consumer use of mobile health for cardiovascular disease prevention: A scientific statement from the American Heart Association. Circulation, 132(12), 1157–1213. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000232
Cahan, E. D. (1989). Past caring: A history of US preschool care and education for the poor, pp. 1820–1965. National Center for Children in Poverty.
Carver-Thomas, D., & Darling-Hammond, L. (2017). Teacher turnover: Why it matters and what we can do about it. Learning Policy Institute. https://doi.org/10.54300/454.278
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2022). Adult BMI Calculator. https://www.cdc.gov/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/adult_bmi/english_bmi_calculator/bmi_calculator.html
Chen, J., Berkovich, I., & Eyal, O. (2021). School leaders’ emotional experiences and capabilities: Perspectives, challenges, and prospects. Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 30, 311–313. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40299-021-00564-y
Coffey, M. (2022). Still underpaid and unequal: Early childhood educators face low pay and a worsening wage gap. Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/still-underpaid-and-unequal/
Collie, R. J. (2021). A multilevel examination of teachers’ occupational commitment: The roles of job resources and disruptive student behavior. Social Psychology of Education, 24(2), 387–411. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-021-09617-y
Collie, R. J., Shapka, J. D., Perry, N. E., & Martin, A. J. (2015). Teacher well-being: Exploring its components and a practice-oriented scale. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 33(8), 744–756. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282915587990
Collie, R. J., Granziera, H., & Martin, A. J. (2020). School principals’ workplace well-being: A multination examination of their job resources and job demands. Journal of Educational Administration, 58(4), 417–433. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-04-2019-0075
De Jong, D., Grundmeyer, T., & Yankey, J. (2017). Identifying and addressing themes of job dissatisfaction for secondary principals. School Leadership & Management, 37(4), 354–371. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2017.1338253
DeMatthews, D., Carrola, P., Reyes, P., & Knight, D. (2021). School leadership burnout and job-related stress: Recommendations for district administrators and principals. The Clearing House: A Journal of Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 94(4), 159–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/00098655.2021.1894083
DeMatthews, D. E., Reyes, P., Carrola, P., Edwards, W., & James, L. (2023). Novice principal burnout: Exploring secondary trauma, working conditions, and coping strategies in an urban district. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 22(1), 181–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2021.1917624
Deutsch, F. M., & Tong, T. L. (2011). Work-to-school mentoring: Childcare center directors and teachers’ return to school. Mentoring & Tutoring: Partnership in Learning, 19, 157–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/13611267.2011.564349
Doromal, J. B., & Markowitz, A. J. (2023). Following the leader: Associations between leader support and teacher retention in child care settings. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 65, 250–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2023.07.001
Douglass, A. L. (2017). Leading for change in early care and education: Cultivating leadership from within. Teachers College Press. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-017-0871-9
Douglass, A. (2018). Redefining leadership: Lessons from an early education leadership development initiative. Early Childhood Education Journal, 46(4), 387–396. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-017-0871-9
Douglass, A., & Kirby, G. (2022). Evaluating leadership development in early care and education. Early Childhood Research Brief, OPRE Report 2022–141. Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for Children & Families., U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Douglass, A., Kirby, G., & Malone, L. (2023). Theory of change of early care and education leadership for quality improvement. OPRE Report #2023–097. Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for Children & Families., U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved from: https://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/opre/ExCELS-Theory-of-Change-6722.pdf
Doyle Fosco, S. L. (2022). Educational leader wellbeing: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 37(100487), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2022.100487
Doyle Fosco, S. L., Brown, M. A., & Schussler, D. L. (2023). Factors affecting educational leader wellbeing: Sources of stress and self-care. Educational Management Administration & Leadership. https://doi.org/10.1177/17411432231184601
Elseman, F. (2021). District support for principal learning and development instrument. Doctoral dissertation, University of Oklahoma, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Federici, R. A., & Skaalvik, E. M. (2011). Principal self-efficacy and work engagement: Assessing a Norwegian principal self-efficacy scale. Social Psychology of Education, 14, 575–600. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-011-9160-4
Federici, R. A., & Skaalvik, E. M. (2012). Principal self-efficacy: Relations with burnout, job satisfaction and motivation to quit. Social Psychology of Education, 15, 295–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-012-9183-5
Fonsen, E., Lahtinen, L., Sillman, M., & Reunamo, J. (2022). Pedagogical leadership and children’s well-being in Finnish early education. Educational Management, Administration, and Leadership, 50, 979–994. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143220962105
Ford, T. G., Olsen, J. J., Khojasteh, J., Ware, J. K., & Urick, A. (2019). Effects of leader support for teacher psychological needs on teacher burnout, commitment, and intent to leave. Journal of Educational Administration, 57(6), 615–634.
Ford, T. G., Kwon, K., Lavigne, A., & McHugh, T. (2024). Testing a holistic framework of working conditions and well-being for early care and education and K-12 educational leaders. AERA Open, 10(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/23328584241235923
Granger, K. L., Hanish, L. D., Abry, T., DeLay, D., & Bradley, R. H. (2023). Teachers’ depressive symptoms and teacher-child conversation quality in early childhood classrooms. Early Education and Development, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2023.2229714
Grissom, J. A., Egalite, A. J., & Lindsay, C. A. (2021). What great principals really do. Educational Leadership, 78(7), 21–25.
Grubb, W. N., & Flessa, J. J. (2006). A job too big for one: Multiple principals and other nontraditional approaches to school leadership. Educational Administration Quarterly, 42(4), 518–550. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X06290641
Hakanen, J. J., Schaufeli, W. B., & Ahola, K. (2008). The Job Demands-Resources model: A three-year cross-lagged study of burnout, depression, commitment, and work engagement. Work & Stress, 22(3), 224–241. https://doi.org/10.1080/02678370802379432
Hall, T., Bassok, D., Doromal, J. B., & Markowitz, A. J. (2023). A director like me: Teacher-leader racial/ethnic match and job outcomes in child care centers. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 62, 369–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2022.10.004
Hitt, D. H., & Tucker, P. D. (2016). Systematic review of key leader practices found to influence student achievement: A unified framework. Review of Educational Research, 86(2), 531–569. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654315614911
Hu, C.-M., Cui, S.-J., & Wang, L. (2016). Path analysis and work family conflict, job salary and promotion satisfaction, work engagement to subjective well-being of the primary and middle school principals. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 4(9), 10–15. https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v4i9.1619
James, K., Lovato, C., & Cropanzano, R. (1994). Correlational and known-group comparison validation of a workplace prejudice/discrimination inventory. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 24(17), 1573–1592. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1994.tb01563.x
Jeon, L., Byun, S., Kwon, K., Domitrovich, C., Charlot-Swilley, D., Oh, Y., Farewell, C., Puma, J., et al. (2023). Building a conceptual framework of holistic ECE workforce wellbeing using an AI-assisted systematic review. Paper presented at the biennial CCEEPRC meeting.
Jorde-Bloom, P. (1988). Assess climate of center-Use of ECWE survey. Day Care and Early Education, 15(4), 9–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02361666
Karasek, R., Brisson, C., Kawakami, N., Houtman, I., Bongers, P., & Amick, B. (1998). The Job Content Questionnaire (JCQ): An instrument for internationally comparative assessments of psychosocial job characteristics. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 3(4), 322–355. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-8998.3.4.322
Kaufman, J. H., Diliberti, M. K., & Hamilton, L. S. (2022). How principals’ perceived resource needs and job demands are related to their dissatisfaction and intention to leave their schools during the COVID-19 pandemic. AERA Open, 8(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1177/2F23328584221081234
Kelton, R., & Talan, T. (2023). We can’t afford to lose leaders: Professional development to increase administrator retention during the first few years. McCormick Center for Early Childhood Leadership.
Kirby, G., Douglass, A., Lyskawa, J., Jones, C., & Malone, L. (2021). Understanding leadership in early care and education: A literature review. OPRE Report 2021–02. Office of Planning, Research, and Evaluation, Administration for Children & Families., U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Kotaman, H. (2016). Turkish early childhood teachers’ emotional problems in early years of their professional lives. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 24(3), 365–381. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2014.970849
Kristiansen, E., Tholin, K. R., & Bøe, M. (2021). Early childhood centre directors coping with stress: Firefighters and oracles. International Journal of Educational Management, 35(4), 909–921. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-12-2020-0584
Kwon, K., Jang, S., Ford, T. G., & Chappel, J. (under review) Validating a comprehensive measure of early care and education (ECE) teacher working conditions.
Kwon, K., Ford, T. G., Jeon, L., Malek-Lasater, A. D., Ellis, N. D., Randall, K., Kile, M. S., & Salvatore, A. (2021). Testing a holistic conceptual framework for early childhood teacher well-being. Journal of School Psychology, 86, 178–197.
Kwon, K., Ford, T. G., Salvatore, A., Randall, K., Jeon, L., Malek-Lasater, A., Ellis, N., Kile, M., Horm, D., Kim, S. G., & Ham, M. (2022). Neglected elements of a high-quality early childhood education workforce: Whole teacher well-being and working conditions. Early Childhood Education Journal, 50, 169–171.
Larkin, E. (1999). The transition from direct caregiver to administrator in early childhood education. Child and Youth Care Forum, 28(1), 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1021998501874
Larson, N., Neumark-Sztainer, D., Story, M., Van Den Berg, P., & Hannan, P. J. (2011). Identifying correlates of young adults’ weight behavior: Survey development. American Journal of Health Behavior, 35(6), 712–725. https://doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.35.6.7
Lascarides, V. C., & Hinitz, B. F. (2013). History of early childhood education. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203814215
Lessard, L. M., Wilkins, K., Rose-Malm, J., & Mazzocchi, M. C. (2020). The health status of the early care and education workforce in the USA: A scoping review of the evidence and current practice. Public Health Reviews, 41, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40985-019-0117-z
Levin, S., & Bradley, K. (2019). Understanding and addressing principal turnover: A review of the research. National Association of Secondary School Principals.
Linnan, L., Arandia, G., Bateman, L. A., Vaughn, A., Smith, N., & Ward, D. (2017). The health and working conditions of women employed in child care. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 14(3), 283. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14030283
Lower, J. K., & Cassidy, D. J. (2007). Child care work environments: The relationship with learning environments. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 22, 189–204. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568540709594621
Mahfouz, J. (2018). Mindfulness training for school administrators: Effects on well-being and leadership. Journal of Educational Administration, 56(6), 602–619. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-12-2017-0171
Mahfouz, J. (2020). Principals and stress: Few coping strategies for abundant stressors. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 48(3), 440–458. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143218817562
Markowitz, A., & Bassok, D. (2024). The early care and education workforce in the United States. In J. Scott, P. Youngs, & L. Cohen-Vogel (Eds.), AERA Handbook on Education Policy (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E., & Leiter, M. P. (1996). Maslach burnout inventory manual. Consulting Psychologists Press.
Maxfield, C. R., Ricks-Doneen, J., Klocko, B. A., & Sturges, L. (2011). Developing and supporting early childhood teacher leaders: A leadership project connecting university, community and public school resources. The International Journal of Educational Leadership Preparation, 6(1), 1–10.
Maxwell, A. & Riley, P. (2016). Emotional demands, emotional labour and occupational outcomes in school principals: Modeling the relationships. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143215607878
McCormick Center for Early Childhood Leadership. (2003). Leadership transitions: What do directors experience? McCormick Center for Early Childhood Leadership Publications. https://digitalcommons.nl.edu/mccormickcenter-pubs/46
McDonald, P., Thorpe, K., & Irvine, S. (2018). Low pay but still we stay: Retention in early childhood education and care. Journal of Industrial Relations, 60(5), 647–668. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022185618800351
Meyer, J. P., Allen, N. J., & Smith, C. A. (1993). Commitment to organizations and occupations: Extension and test of a three-component conceptualization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 78(4), 538–551. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.78.4.538
Mill, D., & Romano-White, D. (1999). Correlates of affectionate and angry behavior in child care educators of preschool-aged children. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 14(2), 155–178. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-2006(99)00007-1
Morgeson, F. P., & Humphrey, S. E. (2006). The Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ): Developing and validating a comprehensive measure for assessing job design and the nature of work. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(6), 1321–1339. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.91.6.1321
Muijs, D., Aubrey, C., Harris, A., & Briggs, M. (2004). How do they manage? A review of the research on leadership in early childhood. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 2(2), 157–169. https://doi.org/10.1177/1476718X04042974
Muruvi, W., Powell, A., Kim, Y., Copeman Petig, A., & Austin, L. J. (2023). The emotional and physical well-being of early educators in California: Early educator well-being series. Center for the Study of Child Care Employment, University of California, Berkeley. https://cscce.berkeley.edu/publications/report/CA-emotional-physical-wellbeing-2023
National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC]. (2021). Progress and peril: Child care at a crossroads. Author. Retrieved from: https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/blog/naeyc_july_2021_survey_progressperil_final.pdf
National Education Association [NEA]. (2019). Data Brief: Diversity and Representation in PK-12 Education Administration (Report No.: NBI 2018–111). Center for Enterprise Strategy.
O’Neill, M. R., & Glasson, S. (2019). Revitalising professional learning for experienced principals: Energy versus ennui. Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 47(6), 887–908. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143218764175
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD]. (2018). Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS): Principal Questionnaire. http://www.oecd.org/education/school/TALIS-2018-MS-Principal-Questionnaire-ENG.pdf
Pejtersen, J. H., Kristensen, T. S., Borg, V., & Bjorner, J. B. (2010). The second version of the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire. Scandinavian Journal of Public Health, 38, 8–24. https://doi.org/10.1177/1403494809349858
Piercy, K. L., Troiano, R. P., Ballard, R. M., Carlson, S. A., Fulton, J. E., Galuska, D. A., George, S. M., & Olson, R. D. (2018). The physical activity guidelines for Americans. JAMA, 320(19), 2020–2028. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.14854
Ray, J., Pijanowski, J., & Lasater, K. (2020). The self-care practices of school principals. Journal of Educational Administration, 58(4), 435–451. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-04-2019-0073
Rodd, J. (2013). Leadership in early childhood (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education (UK).
Rohacek, M., Adams, G. C., & Kisker, E. E. (2010). Understand quality in context: Child care centers, communities, markets, and public policy. Urban Institute. https://doi.org/10.1037/e687742011-001
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Ferguson, M. L. (1978). Developing a measure of loneliness. Journal of Personality Assessment, 42(3), 290–294. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4203_11
Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Cutrona, C. E. (1980). The revised UCLA Loneliness Scale: Concurrent and discriminant validity evidence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(3), 472–548. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.39.3.472
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28806
Saxena, S., Van Ommeren, M., Tang, K. C., & Armstrong, T. P. (2005). Mental health benefits of physical activity. Journal of Mental Health, 14(5), 445–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/09638230500270776
Schaack, D. D., Le, V. N., & Stedron, J. (2020). When fulfillment is not enough: Early childhood teacher occupational burnout and turnover intentions from a job demands and resources perspective. Early Education and Development, 31(7), 1011–1030. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2020.1791648
Schmidt, S., Roesler, U., Kusserow, T., & Rau, R. (2014). Uncertainty in the workplace: Examining role ambiguity and role conflict, and their link to depression—a meta-analysis. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 23(1), 91–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432X.2012.711523
Shore, R. A., Lambert, R. G., & Shue, P. L. (2021). An evaluation of leadership professional development for early childhood directors. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 20(4), 690–703. https://doi.org/10.1080/15700763.2020.1734629
Sisson, S., Malek-Lasater, A., Ford, T. G., Kwon, K. A., & Horm, D. (2023). Predictors of overweight and obesity in early care and education teachers during the COVID pandemic. International Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 20(3), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20032763
Skaalvik, C. (2023). Emotional exhaustion and job satisfaction among Norwegian school principals: Relations with perceived job demands and job resources. International Journal of Leadership in Education, 26(1), 75–99. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603124.2020.1791964
Snodgrass Rangel, V. (2018). A review of the literature on principal turnover. Review of Educational Research, 88(1), 87–124. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317743197
Snyder, C. R., Harris, C., Anderson, J. R., Holleran, S. A., Irving, L. M., Sigmon, S. T., et al. (1991). The will and the ways: Development and validation of an individual-differences measure of hope. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(4), 570–585. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.60.4.570
Spector, P. E. (1994). Measurement of human service staff satisfaction: Development of the Job Satisfaction Survey. American Journal of Community Psychology, 13, 693–713. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00929796
Stephenson, L. E., & Bauer, S. C. (2010). The role of isolation in predicting new principals’ burnout. International Journal of Education Policy and Leadership, 5(9), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.22230/ijepl.2010v5n9a275
Talan, T. N., Bloom, P. J., & Kelton, R. E. (2014). Building the leadership capacity of early childhood directors: An evaluation of a leadership development model. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 16(1), 1–10.
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2014). Occupational outlook handbook, 2014–15: Retrieved from: https://www.bls.gov/opub/mlr/2014/
Urick, A., Carpenter, B. W., & Eckert, J. (2021). Confronting COVID: Crisis leadership, turbulence, and self-care. Frontiers in Education, 6(642861), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.642861
Van Horn, J. E., Taris, T. W., Schaufeli, W. B., & Schreurs, P. J. (2004). The structure of occupational well-being: A study among Dutch teachers. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77(3), 365–375. https://doi.org/10.1348/0963179041752718
Wang, F., Pollock, K., & Hauseman, C. (2022). Time demands and emotionally draining situations amid work intensification of school principals. Educational Administration Quarterly, 59(1), 112–142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013161X221132837
Ware, J., Jr., Kosinski, M., & Keller, S. D. (1996). A 12-Item short-form health survey: Construction of scales and preliminary tests of reliability and validity. Medical Care, 34(3), 220–233. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005650-199603000-00003
Whitaker, R. C., Becker, B. D., Herman, A. N., & Gooze, R. A. (2013). The physical and mental health of Head Start staff: The Pennsylvania Head Start Staff Wellness Survey, 2012. Preventing Chronic Disease, 10, E181. https://doi.org/10.5888/pcd10.130171
Whitebook, M., McLean, C., Austin, L. J., & Edwards, B. (2018). Early Childhood Workforce Index 2018. University of California at Berkeley.
Wilson, D., Plesko, C., Brockie, T. N., & Glass, N. (2022). The well-being of Head Start teachers: a scoping literature review. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/10901027.2022.2147880
Wishard, A., Shivers, E. M., Howes, C., & Ritchie, S. (2003). Child care program and teacher practices: Associations with quality and children’s experiences. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18, 65–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0885-2006(03)00007-3
Wong, S., Bull, R., Cumming, T., & McFarland, L. (2024). Supporting leaders in early childhood education settings: An evaluation of a clinical supervision program for centre directors. Cogent Education, 11, 1. https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2024.2309749
Yan, Z., Wang, Z., Meng, Q., Wang, Y., & Liu, Y. (2022). Sustainable development mechanism in rural Kindergartens: The relationships among enabling organizational structure, Kindergarten directors’ leadership and early childhood teachers’ well-being. Sustainability, 14, 14414. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114414
Yildirim, F., & Sait Dinc, M. (2019). Factors influencing burnout of the principals: A pilot study in Flemish schools of Belgium. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 32(1), 3538–3553. https://doi.org/10.1080/1331677X.2019.1660200
Zheng, X., Dan, Q., Wu, Z., Luo, S., & Peng, X. (2022). A job demands-resources perspective on Kindergarten principals’ occupational well-being: The role of emotional regulation. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192215030
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Ford, T.G., Kwon, KA., Lavigne, A.L. et al. The Working Conditions and Well-being of Early Childhood Leaders in the United States. Early Childhood Educ J (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-024-01677-x
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-024-01677-x