Abstract
Children are at high risk of exposure to potentially traumatic events (PTEs) during early childhood. This developmental period, marked by rapid growth in fundamental skills, may render children particularly vulnerable to adverse developmental effects. Embedding universal trauma-informed supports within early childhood education (ECE) settings has the potential to mitigate the negative consequences of early exposure to PTEs; yet there is a lack of early childhood trauma-informed prevention and intervention programming. To address this need, a collaborative partnership via a participatory research approach was formed between an academic partner and several early childhood education centers in a large urban public school district primarily serving youth of color. This exploratory study describes the development of the “Ready to Learn through Relationships (RLR) Program” that emerged from this partnership. The RLR program is based on the National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN) guidelines for school-based models of trauma-informed care (TIC) and the “boots on the ground” experiences of the participating school district’s early childhood personnel. It utilizes implementation coaching to promote program installation and sustainability. Results demonstrate high levels of need for the program, as well as its feasibility and acceptability. Recommendations for future refinement, implementation, and evaluation efforts are discussed.
Similar content being viewed by others
Change history
03 April 2023
In first page, the typo in word necessity has been corrected.
References
Anderson, E. M., Blitz, L. V., & Saastamoinen, M. (2015). Exploring a school-university model for professional development with classroom staff: Teaching trauma-informed approaches. School Community Journal, 25, 113–134. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1085667.pdf.
Barnett, B., & Stevenson, H. (2015). International perspectives in urban educational leadership: Social justice leadership and high-need schools. In M. A. Khalifa, C. Grant-Overton, & N. W. Arnold (Eds.), Handbook of Urban Educational Leadership (pp. 518–531). Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Bartlett, J. D., & Smith, S. (2019). The role of early care and education in addressing early childhood trauma. American Journal of Community Psychology, 64(3–4), 359–372. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12380.
Bierman, K. L., Domitrovich, C. E., Nix, R. L., Gest, S. D., Welsh, J. A., Greenberg, M. T., Blair, C., Nelson, K. E., & Gill, S. (2008). Promoting academic and social-emotional school readiness: The head start REDI program. Child Development, 79(6), 1802–1817. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01227.x.
Bierman, K. L., & Motamedi, M. (2015). Social-emotional programs for preschool children. In J. Durlak, C. Domitrovich, R. P. Weissberg, T. Gullotta, & P. Goren (Eds.), The handbook of social and emotional learning: Research and practice (pp. 135–150). Guilford Press.
Blaustein, M. E., & Kinniburgh, K. M. (2017). Attachment, self-regulation, and competency (ARC). In Landolt, M., Cloitre, M., Schnyder, U. (Eds.), Evidence-based Treatments for Trauma Related Disorders in Children and Adolescents (pp. 299–319). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-46138-0_14
Blitz, L. V., Anderson, E. M., & Saastamoinen, M. (2016). Assessing perceptions of culture and trauma in an elementary school: Informing a model for culturally responsive trauma-informed schools. The Urban Review, 48, 520–542. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11256-016-0366-9.
Camburn, E. M., & Han, S. W. (2015). Infrastructure for teacher reflection and instructional change: An exploratory study. Journal of Educational Change, 16, 511–533. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-015-9252-6.
Center for Childhood Resilience. (2019). Ready to learn through relationships: A trauma-informed toolkit for early childhood educators.
Center for Childhood Resilience and Center for Child Trauma Assessment Services and Interventions. (2019). Ready to learn through relationships: A trauma-informed framework for early childhood educators.
Child and Adolescent Health Measurement Initiative (2016). 2016 National Survey of Children’s Health (NSCH) data query. https://www.childhealthdata.org
Child Care Aware (2018). 2018 state fact sheets: What does child care look like in your state?http://usa.childcareaware.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/08/2018-state-fact-sheets.pdf
Choi, J. H., McCart, A., Hicks, T., & Sailor, W. (2019). Analysis of mediating effect of school leadership on MTSS implementation. The Journal of Special Education, 53(1), 15–27. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022466918804815.
Choi, K. R., Wang, D., & Jackson, A. P. (2019). Adverse experiences in early childhood and the longitudinal impact on later behavioral problems of children living in poverty. Child Abuse & Neglect, 98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2019.104181.
Cohen, J. A., Mannarino, A. P., & Deblinger, E. (2006). Treating trauma and traumatic grief in children and adolescents. Guilford Press.
Djamnezhad, D., Koltcheva, N., Dizdarevic, A., Mujezinovic, A., Peixoto, C., Coelho, V., Achten, M., Kolumbán, E., Machado, F., & Hofvander, B. (2021). Social and emotional learning in preschool settings: A systematic map of systematic reviews. Frontiers in Education, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2021.691670
Dong, M., Anda, R. F., Felitti, V. J., Dube, S. R., Williamson, D. F., Thompson, T. J., Loo, C. M., & Giles, W. H. (2004). The interrelatedness of multiple forms of childhood abuse, neglect, and household dysfunction. Child Abuse & Neglect, 28(7), 771–784. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2004.01.008.
Dye, H. (2018). The impact and long-term effects of childhood trauma. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 28(3), 381–392. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2018.1435328.
Finkelhor, D., Turner, H., & LaSelva, D. (2021). Receipt of behavioral health services among US children and youth with adverse childhood experiences or mental health symptoms. JAMA Network Open, 4(3), https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2021.1435.
Girvan, C., Conneely, C., & Tangney, B. (2016). Extending experiential learning in teacher professional development. Teaching and Teacher Education, 58, 129–139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.04.009.
Goldenthal, H. J., Raviv, T., Baker, S., Holley, C., Williams, S., F.C., & Gouze, K. R. (2021). Development of a training and implementation model for school-based behavioral health interventions. Psychology in the Schools, 58(7), 1–21https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.22504
Greenberg, M. T., Domitrovich, C. E., Weissberg, R. P., & Durlak, J. A. (2017). Social and emotional learning as a public health approach to education. The Future of Children, 27(1), 13–32. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1144819.pdf.
Guardino, C. A., & Fullerton, E. (2010). Changing behaviors by changing the classroom environment. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 42(6), 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/004005991004200601.
Hamre, B. K., Pianta, R. C., Burchinal, M., Field, S., LoCasale-Crouch, J., Downer, J. T., Howes, C., LaParo, K., & Scott-Little, C. (2012). A course on effective teacher-child interactions: Effects on teacher beliefs, knowledge, and observed practice. American Educational Research Journal, 49(1), 88–123. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831211434596.
Han, S. S., & Weiss, B. (2005). Sustainability of teacher implementation of school-based mental health programs. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33(6), 665–679. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-7646-2.
Hemmeter, M. L., Barton, E., Fox, L., Vatland, C., Henry, G., Pham, L., Horth, K., Taylor, A., Binder, D. P., von der Embse, M., & Veguilla, M. (2022). Program-wide implementation of the pyramid model: Supporting fidelity at the program and classroom levels. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 58(2), 56–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2021.10.003.
Hemmeter, M. L., Snyder, P. A., Fox, L., & Algina, J. (2016). Evaluating the implementation of the pyramid model for promoting social-emotional competence in early childhood classrooms. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 36(3), 133–146. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121416653386.
Holmes, C., Levy, M., Smith, A., Pinne, S., & Neese, P. (2014). A model for creating a supportive trauma-informed culture for children in preschool settings. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 24(6), 1650–1659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-014-9968-6.
Jimenez, M. E., Wade, R., Lin, Y., Morrow, L. M., & Reichman, N. E. (2016). Adverse experiences in early childhood and kindergarten outcomes. Pediatrics, 137(2), https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2015-1839.
Lochman, J. E., Boxmeyer, C., Powell, N., Qu, L., Wells, K., & Windle, M. (2009). Dissemination of the coping power program: Importance of intensity of counselor training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77(3), 397–409. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014514.
Loomis, A. M. (2018). The role of preschool as a point of intervention and prevention for trauma-exposed young children: Recommendations for practice, policy, and research. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 38(3), 134–145. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121418789254.
Luby, J. L., Tillman, R., & Barch, D. M. (2019). Association of timing of adverse childhood experiences and caregiver support with regionally specific brain development in adolescents. JAMA Network Open, 2(9). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2019.11426
Mahoney, J. L., Weissberg, R. P., Greenberg, M. T., Dusenbury, L., Jagers, R. J., Niemi, K., Schlinger, M., Schlund, J., Shriver, T. P., VanAusdal, K., & Yoder, N. (2021). Systemic social and emotional learning: Promoting educational success for all preschool to high school students. American Psychologist, 76(7), 1128–1142. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000701.
Martin, C. P., Russo, J., Goldenthal, H., Holley, C., Gouze, K. R., & Williford, A. (2021). Supporting young children exposed to potentially traumatic events: Implications for early care and education policy. Policy Insights from the Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 8(2), 119–126. https://doi.org/10.1177/23727322211033880.
Mehta, D., Kelly, A. B., Laurens, K. R., Haslam, D., Williams, K. E., Walsh, K., Baker, P. R. A., Carter, H. E., Khawaja, N. G., Zelenko, O., & Mathews, B. (2021). Child maltreatment and long-term physical and mental health outcomes: An exploration of biopsychosocial determinants and implications for prevention. Child Psychiatry & Human Development. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10578-021-01258-8.
Merrick, M. T., Ford, D. C., Ports, K. A., & Guinn, A. S. (2018). Prevalence of adverse childhood experiences from the 2011–2014 behavior risk factor surveillance system in 23 states. JAMA Pediatrics, 172(11), 1038–1044. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.2537.
Morton, B., & Berardi, A. (2018). Trauma-informed school initiative: Developing trauma- informed programming in P-12 schools. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 11(2), 487–493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-017-0160-1.
Nadeem, E., Saldana, L., Chapman, J., & Schaper, H. (2018). A mixed methods study of the stages of implementation for an evidence-based trauma intervention in schools. Behavior Therapy, 49(4), 509–524.
National Child Traumatic Stress Network Schools Committee (2017). Creating, supporting, and sustaining trauma-informed schools: A system framework.National Center for Child Traumatic Stress.https://www.nctsn.org/sites/default/files/resources/creating_supporting_sustaining_trauma_informed_schools_a_systems_framework.pdf
Orapallo, A., Grant, N., & Baker, N. (2021). Examining the effectiveness of trauma smart training: Staff satisfaction, knowledge, and attitudes. Psychological Trauma: Theory Research Practice and Policy, 13(8), 891–898. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0001075.supp.
Purtle, J. (2018). Systematic review of evaluations of trauma-informed organizational interventions that include staff trainings. Trauma Violence & Abuse, 21(4), 725–740. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524838018791304.
Santiago, C. D., Raviv, T., & Jaycox, L. H. (2018). Creating healing school communities: School-based interventions for students exposed to trauma. American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000072-000.
Shoesmith, A., Hall, A., Wolfenden, L., Shelton, R. C., Powell, B. J., Brown, H., McCrabb, S., Sutherland, R., Yoong, S., Lane, C., Booth, D., & Nathan, N. (2021). Barriers and facilitators influencing sustainment of health behaviour interventions in schools and childcare services: A systematic review. Implementation Science, 16(62), https://doi.org/10.1186/s13012-021-01134-y.
Thornburg, D. G., & Mungai, A. (2011). Teacher empowerment and school reform. Journal of Ethnographic & Qualitative Research, 5(4), 205–217. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ955299.
Thomas, D. R. (2006). A general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation data. The American Journal of Evaluation, 27(2), 237–246. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098214005283748.
Thomas, S. M., Crosby, S., & Vanderhaar (2019). Trauma-informed practices in schools across two decades: An interdisciplinary review of research. Review of Research in Education, 43(1), 422–452. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X18821123.
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration for Children and Families (2010). Head start impact study final reporthttps://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/documents/opre/executive_summary_final_508.pdf
U.S. Department of Health & Human Services, Administration for Children and Families, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children’s Bureau. (2022). Child maltreatment 2020. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/cb/data-research/child
Webster, E. M. (2022). The impact of adverse childhood experiences on health and development in young children. Global Pediatric Health, 9. https://doi.org/10.1177/2333794X221078708.
Zakszeski, B. N., Ventresco, N. E., & Jaffe, A. (2017). Promoting resilience through trauma-focused practices: A critical review of school-based implementation. School Mental Health, 9(4), 310–321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12310-017-9228-1.
Vaughn, L. M., & Jacquez, F. (2020). Participatory Research Methods – Choice Points in the Research Process. Journal of Participatory Research Methods, 1(1). 10.35844/001c.13244
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to all our partners at Chicago Public Schools, as well as the teachers, caregivers, and children of the Child Parent Centers.
The authors have no competing interest to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.
Funding
This manuscript was based on work supported in part by grants awarded from Northwestern University, the Paul Angell Foundation, and an anonymous donor.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Goldenthal, H.J., Gouze, K., Raviv, T. et al. The Ready to Learn Through Relationships (RLR) Program: Development, Feasibility, and Acceptability. Early Childhood Educ J 52, 587–601 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-023-01472-0
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-023-01472-0