Abstract
Advanced technology and the shift to a digital childhood have dramatically reshaped children’s early life experiences. Children’s literacy experiences are also evolving; in addition to printed storybooks, children are now exposed to electronic stories (e-stories). While previous studies have addressed the effects of e-stories on children’s comprehension, little attention has been devoted to the roles of theory of mind (ToM) and executive functions (EF) in this process. The goal of the present study is to expand our current understanding of the roles of ToM and EF in young children’s narrative processing of e-stories and printed stories. The participants consisted of 196 children who were five years of age. A matched comparison group design was used. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were conducted to test the predictive power of ToM and EF for young children’s story comprehension after controlling for receptive vocabulary. A hierarchical multiple regression model accounted for 63% of the total variance in printed story comprehension and ToM had a higher predictive power. In relation to e-stories, EF had a higher predictive power, and the three predictors accounted for 66% of the total variance in story comprehension. The initial findings suggest narrative processes in e-stories are more related to EF and probably require more complex cognitive competencies. Thus, designers should create developmentally appropriate and well-designed e-stories that facilitate both story comprehension and EF.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adrian, J. E., Clemente, R. A., Villanueva, L., & Rieffe, C. (2005). Parent–child picture-book reading, mothers' mental state language and children's theory of mind. Journal of Child Language, 32(3), 673–686.
Ahmed, Y., Francis, D. J., York, M., Fletcher, J. M., Barnes, M., & Kulesz, P. (2016). Validation of the direct and inferential mediation (DIME) model of reading comprehension in grades 7 through 12. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 44, 68–82.
Altun, D. (2018). The efficacy of multimedia stories in preschoolers’ explicit and implicit story comprehension. Early Childhood Education Journal, 46(6), 629–642.
Altun, D. (2019). Young children’s theory of mind: Home literacy environment, technology usage, and preschool education. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 7(3), 86–98.
American Academy of Pediatrics. (2016). Media and young minds. Pediatrics, 138(5), 1–6.
Astington, J. W., & Jenkins, J. M. (1999). A longitudinal study of the relation between language and theory-of-mind development. Developmental Psychology, 35(5), 1311–1320.
Atkinson, L., Slade, L., Powell, D., & Levy, J. P. (2017). Theory of mind in emerging reading comprehension: A longitudinal study of early indirect and direct effects. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 164, 225–238.
Beck, D. M., Schaefer, C., Pang, K., & Carlson, S. M. (2011). Executive function in preschool children: Test–retest reliability. Journal of Cognition and Development, 12(2), 169–193.
Best, J. R., Miller, P. H., & Jones, L. L. (2009). Executive functions after age 5: Changes and correlates. Developmental Review, 29(3), 180–200.
Broemmel, A. D., Moran, M. J., & Wooten, D. A. (2015). The impact of animated books on the vocabulary and language development of preschool-aged children in two school settings. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 17(1), 1–14.
Bull, R., & Scerif, G. (2001). Executive functioning as a predictor of children’s mathematics ability: Inhibition, switching, and WM. Developmental Neuropsychology, 19, 273–293.
Bus, A. G., Takacs, Z. K., & Kegel, C. A. (2015). Affordances and limitations of electronic storybooks for young children's emergent literacy. Developmental Review, 35, 79–97.
Butterfuss, R., & Kendeou, P. (2018). The role of executive functions in reading comprehension. Educational Psychology Review, 30(3), 801–826.
Cantin, R. H., Gnaedinger, E. K., Gallaway, K. C., Hesson-McInnis, M. S., & Hund, A. M. (2016). Executive functioning predicts reading, mathematics, and theory of mind during the elementary years. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 146, 66–78.
Carlson, S. M., Claxton, L. J., & Moses, L. J. (2015). The relation between executive function and theory of mind is more than skin deep. Journal of Cognition and Development, 16, 186–197.
Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Breton, C. (2002). How specific is the relation between executive function and theory of mind? Contributions of inhibitory control and working memory. Infant and Child Development, 11(2), 73–92.
Danaei, D., Jamali, H. R., Mansourian, Y., & Rastegarpour, H. (2020). Comparing reading comprehension between children reading augmented reality and print storybooks. Computers & Education. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103900.
Derksen, D. G., Hunsche, M. C., Giroux, M. E., Connolly, D. A., & Bernstein, D. M. (2018). A systematic review of theory of mind’s precursors and functions. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 226, 87–97.
Devine, R. T., & Hughes, C. (2014). Relations between false belief understanding and executive function in early childhood: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 85, 1777–1794.
Devine, R. T., & Hughes, C. (2016). Measuring theory of mind across middle childhood: Reliability and validity of the silent films and strange stories tasks. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 149, 23–40.
Devine, R. T., & Hughes, C. (2018). Family correlates of false belief understanding in early childhood: A meta-analysis. Child Development, 89(3), 971–987.
Diamond, A., & Lee, K. (2011). Interventions shown to aid executive function development in children 4 to 12 years old. Science, 333(6045), 959–964.
Diergarten, A. K., & Nieding, G. (2015). Children’s and adults’ ability to build online emotional inferences during comprehension of audiovisual and auditory texts. Journal of Cognition and Development, 16, 381–406.
Doenyas, C., Yavuz, H. M., & Selcuk, B. (2018). Not just a sum of its parts: How tasks of the theory of mind scale relate to executive function across time. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 166, 485–501.
Dore, R. A., Amendum, S. J., Golinkoff, R. M., & Hirsh-Pasek, K. (2018). Theory of mind: A hidden factor in reading comprehension? Educational Psychology Review, 30, 1067–1089.
Downes, M., Berg, C., Kirkham, F. J., Kischkel, L., McMurray, I., & de Haan, M. (2018). Task utility and norms for the preschool executive task assessment (PETA). Child Neuropsychology, 24(6), 784–798.
Espy, K. A., Kaufmann, P. M., McDiarmid, M. D., & Glisky, M. L. (1999). Executive functioning in preschool children: Performance on A-not-B and other delayed response format tasks. Brain and Cognition, 41(2), 178–199.
Fecica, A. M., & O’Neill, D. K. (2010). A step at a time: preliterate children’s simulation of narrative movement during story comprehension. Cognition, 116(3), 368–381.
Fernández, C. (2013). Mindful storytellers: Emerging pragmatics and theory of mind development. First Language, 33(1), 20–46.
Florit, E., Roch, M., & Levorato, M. C. (2011). Listening text comprehension of explicit and implicit information in preschoolers: The role of verbal and inferential skills. Discourse Processes, 48(2), 119–138.
Follmer, D. J. (2018). Executive function and reading comprehension: A meta-analytic review. Educational Psychologist, 53(1), 42–60.
Fuhs, M. W., & Day, J. D. (2011). Verbal ability and executive functioning development in preschoolers at head start. Developmental Psychology, 47(2), 404–416.
Gale, E., de Villiers, P., de Villiers, J., & Pyers, J. (1996). Language and theory of mind in oral deaf children. In A. Stringfellow, D. CahanaAmitay, E. Hughes, & A. Zukowski (Eds.), Proceedings of the Boston University Conference on Language Development (pp. 213–224). Somerville: Cascadilla Press.
Glenberg, A. M. (2017). How reading comprehension is embodied and why that matters. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 4(1), 5–18.
Gonen, M., Guler-Yildiz, T., Ulker-Erdem, A., Garcia, A., Raikes, H., Acar, I. H., ... & Davis, D. L. (2018). Examining the association between executive functions and developmental domains of low-income children in the United States and Turkey. Psychological Reports doi: https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294118756334
Gottardo, A., Mirza, A., Koh, P. W., Ferreira, A., & Javier, C. (2018). Unpacking listening comprehension: The role of vocabulary, morphological awareness, and syntactic knowledge in reading comprehension. Reading and Writing, 31(8), 1741–1764.
Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6–10.
Gözün-Kahraman, Ö. (2012). Investigation of the theory of mind based training program’seffects on the 48–60 months-old children’s cognitive perspective taking skills and prosocial behaviors.(Unpublished dissertation). Gazi University, Turkey.
Graf, E., Hernandez, M. W., & Bingham, R. S. (2016). Preschool predictors of academic achievement in five kindergarten readiness domains: Oral language & literacy, math, science, social-emotional development & approaches to learning. Kenneth Rainin Foundation. Retrieved from https://krfoundation.org/krf/site-content/uploads/ 2017/ 05/Kindergarten-Readiness-Predictors-Final-Report-120916.pdf.
Guajardo, N. R., & Cartwright, K. B. (2016). The contribution of theory of mind, counterfactual reasoning, and executive function to pre-readers’ language comprehension and later reading awareness and comprehension in elementary school. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 144, 27–45.
Haft, S. L., Caballero, J. N., Tanaka, H., Zekelman, L., Cutting, L. E., Uchikoshi, Y., et al. (2019). Direct and indirect contributions of executive function to word decoding and reading comprehension in kindergarten. Learning and Individual Differences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2019.101783.
Horowitz-Kraus, T., Eaton, K., Farah, R., Hajinazarian, A., Vannest, J., & Holland, S. K. (2015). Predicting better performance on a college preparedness test from narrative comprehension at the age of 6 years: An fMRI study. Brain Research, 1629, 54–62.
Horowitz-Kraus, T., Farah, R., DiFrancesco, M., & Vannest, J. (2017). The involvement of speed-of-processing in story listening in preschool children: A functional and structural connectivity study. Neuropediatrics, 48(01), 019–029.
Hughes, C., & Devine, R. T. (2015). A social perspective on theory of mind. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (pp. 564–609). Hoboken: John Wiley.
Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2010). Do early social cognition and executive function predict individual differences in preschoolers’ prosocial and antisocial behavior. In B. Sokol, U. Müller, J. I. M. Carpendale, A. R. Young, & G. Iarocci (Eds.), Self and social regulation: Social interaction and the development of social understanding and executive functions (pp. 418–441). New York: Oxford University Press.
Huitt, W. (2003). The information processing approach to cognition. Educational Psychology Interactive, 3(2), 53–67.
Kazak-Berument, S., & Guven, A. G. (2013). Turkish expressive and receptive language test: Standardization, reliability and validity study of the receptive vocabulary sub-scale. Turkish Journal of Psychiatry, 24(3), 192–201.
Kendeou, P., Bohn-Gettler, C., White, M. J., & van den Broek, P. (2008). Children’s inference generation across different media. Journal of Research in Reading, 31(3), 259–272.
Kidd, D. C., & Castano, E. (2013). Reading literary fiction improves theory of mind. Science, 342(6156), 377–380.
Kiefer, B. Z., Hepler, S. I., Hickman, J., & Huck, C. S. (2007). Charlotte Huck's children's literature. Boston: McGraw-Hill Companies.
Kieffer, M. J., Vukovic, R. K., & Berry, D. (2013). Roles of attention shifting and inhibitory control in fourth-grade reading comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 48, 333–348.
Kılıç, A. O., Sari, E., Yucel, H., Oğuz, M. M., Polat, E., Acoglu, E. A., et al. (2019). Exposure to and use of mobile devices in children aged 1–60 months. European Journal of Pediatrics, 178(2), 221–227.
Kim, Y. S. G. (2016). Direct and mediated effects of language and cognitive skills on comprehension of oral narrative texts (listening comprehension) for children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 141, 101–120.
Korat, O., & Shneor, D. (2019). Can e-books support low SES parental mediation to enrich children’s vocabulary? First Language. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723718822443.
Kraybill, J. H., & Bell, M. A. (2013). Infancy predictors of preschool and post-kindergarten executive function. Developmental Psychobiology, 55(5), 530–538.
LaRusso, M., Kim, H. Y., Selman, R., Uccelli, P., Dawson, T., Jones, S., ... & Snow, C. (2016). Contributions of academic language, perspective taking, and complex reasoning to deep reading comprehension. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 9(2), 201–222
Lauricella, A. R., Barr, R., & Calvert, S. L. (2014). Parent–child interactions during traditional and computer storybook reading for children’s comprehension: Implications for electronic storybook design. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 2(1), 17–25.
Lervåg, A., Hulme, C., & Melby-Lervåg, M. (2018). Unpicking the developmental relationship between oral language skills and reading comprehension: It's simple, but complex. Child Development, 89(5), 1821–1838.
Liddle, B., & Nettle, D. (2006). Higher-order theory of mind and social competence in school-age children. Journal of Cultural and Evolutionary Psychology, 4(3–4), 231–244.
Locascio, G., Mahone, E. M., Eason, S. H., & Cutting, L. E. (2010). Executive dysfunction among children with reading comprehension deficits. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43, 441–454.
Lonigan, C. J., Anthony, J. L., Phillips, B. M., Purpura, D. J., Wilson, S. B., & McQueen, J. D. (2009). The nature of preschool phonological processing abilities and their relations to vocabulary, general cognitive abilities, and print knowledge. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(2), 345–358.
Lynch, J. S., van den Broek, P., Kremer, K. E., Kendeou, P., White, M. J., & Lorch, E. P. (2008). The development of narrative comprehension and its relation to other early reading skills. Reading Psychology, 29, 327–365.
Mar, R. A. (2004). The neuropsychology of narrative: Story comprehension, story production and their interrelation. Neurophsychologia, 42, 1414–1434.
Marcovitch, S., O’Brien, M., Calkins, S. D., Leerkes, E. M., Weaver, J. M., & Levine, D. W. (2015). A longitudinal assessment of the relation between executive function and theory of mind at 3, 4, and 5 years. Cognitive Development, 33, 40–55.
Martinez, M., & Harmon, J. M. (2012). Picture/text relationships: An investigation of literary elements in picturebooks. Literacy Research and Instruction, 51(4), 323–343.
Miller, C. A. (2006). Developmental relationships between language and theory of mind. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 15, 142–154.
Miller, S. (2009). Children’s understanding of secondorder mental states. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 749–773. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016854.
Milligan, K., Astington, J. W., & Dack, L. A. (2007). Language and theory of mind: Meta-analysis of the relation between language ability and false-belief understanding. Child Development, 78(2), 622–646.
Nesbitt, K. T., Farran, D. C., & Fuhs, M. W. (2015). Executive function skills and academic achievement gains in prekindergarten: Contributions of learning-related behaviors. Developmental Psychology, 51(7), 865–878.
Nouwens, S., Groen, M. A., & Verhoeven, L. (2016). How storage and executive functions contribute to children's reading comprehension. Learning and Individual Differences, 47, 96–102.
Nouwens, S., Groen, M. A., & Verhoeven, L. (2017). How working memory relates to children’s reading comprehension: The importance of domain-specificity in storage and processing. Reading and Writing, 30(1), 105–120.
Paige, D. D. (2011). Engaging struggling adolescent readers through situational interest: A model proposing the relationships among extrinsic motivation, oral reading proficiency, comprehension, and academic achievement. Reading Psychology, 32(5), 395–425.
Papadakis, S., Kalogiannakis, M., & Zaranis, N. (2018). Educational apps from the Android Google Play for Greek preschoolers: A systematic review. Computers & Education, 116, 139–160.
Paris, A. H., & Paris, S. G. (2003). Assessing narrative comprehension in young children. Reading Research Quarterly, 38(1), 36–76.
Pelletier, J., & Beatty, R. (2015). Children’s understanding of Aesop’s fables: Relations to reading comprehension and theory of mind. Frontiers in Psychology, 6, 1448.
Peng, P., Barnes, M., Wang, C., Wang, W., Li, S., Swanson, H. L., ... & Tao, S. (2018). A meta-analysis on the relation between reading and working memory. Psychological Bulletin, 144(1), 48–76.
Peterson, C. C., & Siegal, M. (1995). Deafness, conversation and theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 459–474.
Protopapas, A., Archonti, A., & Skaloumbakas, C. (2007). Reading ability is negatively related to stroop interference. Cognitive Psychology, 54, 251–282.
Reynolds, R. E. (2000). Attentional resource emancipation: Toward understanding the interaction of word identification and comprehension processes in reading. Scientific Studies of Reading, 4, 169–195.
Richter, A., & Courage, M. L. (2017). Comparing electronic and paper storybooks for preschoolers: Attention, engagement, and recall. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 48, 92–102.
Rocke, K., Hays, P., Edwards, D., & Berg, C. (2008). Development of a performance assessment of executive function: The Children’s Kitchen Task Assessment. The American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 62(5), 528–537.
Sadoski, M., & Paivio, A. (2013). Imagery and text: A dual coding theory of reading and writing. New York: Routledge.
Sarı, B., & Altun, D. (2018). Okul öncesi dönem çocuklarının hikâye anlama ile zihin kuramı becerileri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi [An examination of the relationship between preschoolers’ story comprehension and theory of mind skills]. Ana Dili Eğitimi Dergisi [Journal of Mother Tongue Education], 6(4), 945–960.
Sarı, B., Başal, H. A., Takacs, Z. K., & Bus, A. G. (2019). A randomized controlled trial to test efficacy of digital enhancements of storybooks in support of narrative comprehension and word learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 179, 212–226.
Sénéchal, M., Pagan, S., Lever, R., & Ouellette, G. P. (2008). Relations among the frequency of shared reading and 4-year-old children's vocabulary, morphological and syntax comprehension, and narrative skills. Early Education and Development, 19(1), 27–44.
Shallice, T., & Burgess, P. (1996). The domain of supervisory processes and temporal organization of behaviour. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 351(1346), 1405–1412.
Slaughter, V. (2015) Theory of mind in infants and young children: A review. Australian Psychologist, 50(3), 169–172.
Sroka, M. C., Vannest, J., Maloney, T. C., Horowitz-Kraus, T., Byars, A. W., Holland, S. K., & CMIND Authorship Consortium. (2015). Relationship between receptive vocabulary and the neural substrates for story processing in preschoolers. Brain Imaging and Behavior, 9(1), 43–55.
St. Clair-Thompson, H. L., & Gathercole, S. E. (2006). Executive functions and achievements in school: Shifting, updating, inhibition, and WM. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 59, 745–759.
Stanley, C. T., Petscher, Y., & Catts, H. (2018). A longitudinal investigation of direct and indirect links between reading skills in kindergarten and reading comprehension in tenth grade. Reading and Writing, 31(1), 133–153.
Stiles, D. J., McGregor, K. K., & Bentler, R. A. (2012). Vocabulary and working memory in children fit with hearing aids. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 55, 154–167.
Stone, V. E., Baron-Cohen, S., & Knight, R. T. (1998). Frontal lobe contributions to theory of mind. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 10(5), 640–656.
Strasser, K., & del Río, F. (2013). The role of comprehension monitoring, theory of mind, and vocabulary depth in predicting story comprehension and recall of kindergarten children. Reading Research Quarterly, 49(2), 169–187.
Sweller, J. (2016). Cognitive load theory, evolutionary educational psychology, and instructional design. In D. C. Geary & D. B. Berch (Eds.), Evolutionary perspectives on child development and education (pp. 291–306). Basel: Springer.
Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate analysis. Boston: Pearson.
Takacs, Z. K., & Bus, A. G. (2016). Benefits of motion in animated storybooks for children’s visual attention and story comprehension. An eye-tracking study. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 1591.
Takacs, Z. K., & Bus, A. G. (2018). How pictures in picture storybooks support young children’s story comprehension: An eye-tracking experiment. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 174, 1–12.
Taylor, G., Monaghan, P., & Westermann, G. (2018). Investigating the association between children’s screen media exposure and vocabulary size in the UK. Journal of Children and Media, 12(1), 51–65.
Tilstra, J., McMaster, K., van den Broek, P., Kendeou, P., & Rapp, D. (2009). Simple but complex: Components of the simple view of reading across grade levels. Journal of Research in Reading, 32(4), 383–401.
Tompkins, V., Farrar, M. J., & Montgomery, D. E. (2019). Speaking your mind: Language and narrative in young children's theory of mind development. Advances in Child Development and Behavior, 56, 109–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acdb.2018.11.003.
Van der Oord, S., Ponsioen, A. J. G. B., Geurts, H. M., Brink, E. T., & Prins, P. J. M. (2014). A pilot study of the efficacy of a computerized executive functioning remediation training with game elements for children with ADHD in an outpatient setting: Outcome on parent-and teacher-rated executive functioning and ADHD behavior. Journal of Attention Disorders, 18(8), 699–712.
van Kuijk, I., Verkoeijen, P., Dijkstra, K., & Zwaan, R. A. (2018). The effect of reading a short passage of literary fiction on theory of mind: A replication of Kidd and Castano (2013). Collabra. https://doi.org/10.1525/collabra.117.
Wade, M., Prime, H., Jenkins, J. M., Yeates, K. O., Williams, T., & Lee, K. (2018). On the relation between theory of mind and executive functioning: A developmental cognitive neuroscience perspective. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 25, 1–22.
Wang, S. X., Wang, Z. H., Cheng, X. T., Li, J., Sang, Z. P., Zhang, X. D., et al. (2007). Arsenic and fluoride exposure in drinking water: Children’s IQ and growth in Shanyin county, Shanxi province China. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115(4), 643–647.
Weiland, C., Barata, M. C., & Yoshikawa, H. (2014). The co-occurring development of executive function skills and receptive vocabulary in preschool-aged children: A look at the direction of the developmental pathways. Infant and Child Development, 23(1), 4–21.
Wellman, H. M., & Liu, D. (2004). Scaling of theory-of-mind tasks. Child Development, 75, 523–541.
Zelazo, P. D., Carlson, S. M., & Kesek, A. (2008). Development of executive function in childhood. In C. Nelson & M. Luciana (Eds.), Handbook of developmental cognitive neuroscience (pp. 553–574). Cambridge: MIT Press.
Zhou, N., & Yadav, A. (2017). Effects of multimedia story reading and questioning on preschoolers’ vocabulary learning, story comprehension and reading engagement. Educational Technology Research and Development, 65(6), 1523–1545.
Zipke, M. (2017). Preschoolers explore interactive storybook apps: The effect on word recognition and story comprehension. Education and Information Technologies, 22(4), 1695–1712.
Zorza, J. P., Marino, J., & Mesas, A. A. (2016). Executive functions as predictors of school performance and social relationships: Primary and secondary school students. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 19(e23), 1–10.
Children’s Literature Cited
Oral, F. (2017). Kırmızı kanatlı baykuş [Red winged owl]. Ankara: Yapı Kredi Yayınları.
Would, H. S. (2016). Ay’ı kim çaldı? [Who stole the moon]. Ankara: Yapı Kredi Yayınları.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Altun, D. Twice Upon a Mind: Preschoolers’ Narrative Processing of Electronic and Printed Stories. Early Childhood Educ J 49, 349–359 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-020-01079-9
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10643-020-01079-9