Abstract
For effective teamwork, especially in demanding learning situations like a hackathon, coordination is crucial as it contributes to mutual trust and shared mental models of team members. However, teams experience challenges that mar team coordination. Research has shown that interpersonal skills such as socially-shared emotion regulation (SSER) can be key in dealing with such challenges. We examined the relationship between SSER and mutual trust, and SSER and shared mental models in the context of a hackathon. Adapted from a small SSER scale, we built a 27-item questionnaire to examine SSER and its relationship with mutual trust and shared mental modelsin programming teams. We also used heat maps to provide an overview of individual team members’ perceptions of their teams’ SSER strategy application, mutual trust, and strength of shared mental model bonds within the team. Regarding the relationship between SSER and shared mental models, our analyses revealed signification association (correlation) between: (a) SSER situation modification and shared mental model: task and communication skills and (b) SSER situation modification and shared mental model: team dynamics and interaction. For the relationship between SSER and mutual trust, our analyses revealed significant relationships between: (a) SSER situation modification and perceived trustworthiness, (b) SSER cognitive change and perceived trustworthiness, (c) SSER response modulation and cooperative behaviors, and (d) SSER response modulation and monitoring behaviors. These relationships highlight the power of SSER in building key team coordination mechanisms and strengthening team performance.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
References
Amason, A. C., & Sapienza, H. J. (1997). The effects of top management team size and interaction norms on cognitive and affective conflict. Journal of Management, 23(4), 495–516. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0149-2063(97)90045-3
Anat, R., Shy, R., & Cheshin, A. (2009). Sensemaking in virtual teams: The impact of emotions and support tools on team mental models and team performance. International Review of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 24, 151–182. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470745267.ch5
Barsade, S., & Gibson, E. (1998). Group emotion: A view from top and bottom. In D. H. Gruenfeld (Ed.), Research on managing groups and teams (pp. 81–102). Elsevier Science/JAI Press.
Behfar, K., Peterson, R., Mannix, E., & Trochim, W. (2008). The critical role of conflict resolution in teams: A close look at the links between conflict type, conflict management strategies, and team outcomes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(1), 170–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.93.1.170
Bentzen, T. Ø. (2022). The tripod of trust: a multilevel approach to trust-based leadership in public organizations. Public Management Review, 1–23.
Brett, J., Behfar, K., & Sanchez-Burks, J. (2014). Managing cross-cultural conflicts: A close look at the implication of direct versus indirect confrontation. In A. Ashkanasy, O. Ayoko, & K. A. Jehn (Eds.), Handbook of research in conflict management (pp. 136–154). Edward Edgar Publishing.
Cannon, M., & Edmondson, A. (2001). Confronting failure: Antecedents and consequences of shared beliefs about failure in organizational work groups. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22(2), 161–177. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.85
Cannon-Bowers, J. A., Salas, E., & Converse, S. A. (1993). Shared mental models in expert team decision making. In N. J. Castellan Jr. (Ed.), Individual and group decision making: Current issues (pp. 221–246). Erlbaum.
Chen, Y., Tjosvold, D., & Su Fang, S. (2005). Working with foreign managers: Conflict management for effective leader relationships in China. International Journal of Conflict Management, 16(3), 265–286. https://doi.org/10.1108/eb022932
Cogliser, C. C., Gardner, W. L., Gavin, M. B., & Broberg, J. C. (2012). Big five personality factors and leader emergence in virtual teams: Relationships with team trustworthiness, member performance contributions, and team performance. Group & Organization Management, 37(6), 752–784. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059601112464266
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Erlbaum.
Costa, A. C., & Anderson, N. (2011). Measuring trust in teams: Development and validation of a multifaceted measure of formative and reflective indicators of team trust. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 20(1), 119–154. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320903272083
Costa, A. C., Roe, R. A., & Taillieu, T. (2001). Trust within teams: The relation with performance effectiveness. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 10(3), 225–244. https://doi.org/10.1080/13594320143000654
Crisp, C., & Jarvenpaa, S. (2015). Swift trust in global virtual teams: Trusting beliefs and normative actions. Journal of Personnel Psychology, 12, 45–56. https://doi.org/10.1027/1866-5888/a000075
Daim, T., Ha, A., Reutiman, S., Hughes, B., Pathak, U., Bynum, W., & Bhatla, A. (2012). Exploring the communication breakdown in global virtual teams. International Journal of Project Management, 30(2), 199–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2011.06.004
Davaei, M., Gunkel, M., Veglio, V., & Taras, V. (2022). The influence of cultural intelligence and emotional intelligence on conflict occurrence and performance in global virtual teams. Journal of International Management, 28, 100969.
De Dreu, C., & Weingart, L. (2003). Task versus relationship conflict, team performance, and team member satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(4), 741–749. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.4.741
de Wit, F., Greer, L., & Jehn, K. (2012). The paradox of intragroup conflict: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology, 97(2), 360–390. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024844
DeFranco, J., Neill, C., & Clariana, R. (2011). A cognitive collaborative model to improve performance in engineering teams: A study of team outcomes and mental model sharing. Systems Engineering, 14(3), 267–278. https://doi.org/10.1002/sys.20178
Dillenbourg, P., & Traum, D. (2006). Sharing solutions: Persistence and grounding in multimodal collaborative problem solving. The Journal of the Learning Sciences, 15(1), 121–151. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327809jls1501_9
Dinh, J., Schweissing, E., Venkatesh, A., Traylor, A., Kilcullen, M., Perez, J., & Salas, E. (2021). The Study of Teamwork Processes Within the Dynamic Domains of Healthcare: A Systematic and Taxonomic Review. Frontiers in Communication, 6. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2021.617928
Driskell, T., Salas, E., & Driskell, J. E. (2018). Teams in extreme environments: Alterations in team development and teamwork. Human Resource Management Review, 28(4), 434–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2017.01.002
Druskat, V. U., & Wolff, S. B. (2001). Building the emotional intelligence of groups. Harvard Business Review, 79(3), 80–91.
Dunn, J. R., & Schweitzer, M. E. (2005). Feeling and believing: the influence of emotion on trust. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 88(5), 736–748. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.88.5.736
English, T., & John, O. P. (2013). Understanding the social effects of emotion regulation: The mediating role of authenticity for individual differences in suppression. Emotion, 13(2), 314–329. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029847
Friend, L. A., Costley, C., & Brown, C. (2010). Spirals of distrust vs spirals of trust in retail customer service: consumers as victims or allies. Journal of Services Marketing, 24(6), 458–467. https://doi.org/10.1108/08876041011072573
Gabelica, C., Van den Bossche, P., Fiore, S. M., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. H. (2016). Establishing team knowledge coordination from a learning perspective. Human Performance, 29(1), 33–53. https://doi.org/10.1080/08959285.2015.1120304
Gelfand, M. J., Harrington, J. R., & Leslie, L. M. (2014). Conflict cultures: a new frontier for conflict management research and practice. In O. Ayoko, N. Ashkanasy, & K. Jehn (Eds.), Handbook of conflict management research (pp. 109–135). Edward Elgar Publishing.
Goldman, R. (2007). Video representations and the perspectivity framework: epistemology, ethnography, evaluation, and ethics. In R. Goldman, R. Pea, B. Barron, & S. J. Derry (Eds.), Video research in the learning sciences (pp. 3–38). Lawrence Erlbaum.
Gross, J. J. (1998). The emerging field of emotion regulation: an integrative review. Review of General Psychology, 2(3), 271–299. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.2.3.271
Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Psychophysiology, 39(3), 281–291. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0048577201393198
Gross, J. J. (2008). Emotion regulation. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (pp. 497–512). The Guilford Press.
Gross, J. J. (2015). Emotion regulation: Current status and future prospects. Psychological Inquiry, 26(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/1047840X.2014.940781
Gross, J. J., & Muñoz, R. F. (1995). Emotion regulation and mental health. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 2(2), 151–164. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2850.1995.tb00036.x
Gross, J. J., & John, O. P. (2003). Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: Implications for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85(2), 348–362. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348
Hamilton, K., Shih, S., Tesler, R., & Mohammed, S. (2014). Team mental models and intragroup conflict. In O. Ayoko, N. Ashkansy, & K. Jehn (Eds.), Handbook of conflict management research (pp. 239–253). Edward Elgar Press.
Hobman, E. V., Bordia, P., Irmer, B., & Chang, A. (2002). The expression of conflict in computer-mediated and face-to-face groups. Small Group Research, 33(4), 439–465. https://doi.org/10.1177/104649640203300403
Homan, A. C., van Knippenberg, D., Van Kleef, G. A., & De Dreu, C. K. (2007). Interacting dimensions of diversity: Cross-categorization and the functioning of diverse work groups. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 11(2), 79–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2699.11.2.79
Huckman, R. S., Staats, B. R., & Upton, D. M. (2009). Team familiarity, role experience, and performance: Evidence from Indian software services. Management Science, 55(1), 85–100. https://doi.org/10.1287/mnsc.1080.0921
Hung, W. (2013). Team-based complex problem solving: A collective cognition perspective. Educational Technology Research and Development, 61(3), 365–384. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-013-9296-3
Isohätälä, J., Järvenoja, H., & Järvelä, S. (2017). Socially shared regulation of learning and participation in social interaction in collaborative learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 81, 11–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2016.10.006
Jarvelä, S., Lehtinen, E., & Salonen, P. (2000). Socio-emotional orientation as a mediating variable in the teaching-learning interaction: Implications for instructional design. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 44(3), 293–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/713696677
Järvenoja, H., & Järvelä, S. (2009). Emotion control in collaborative learning situations: Do students regulate emotions evoked by social challenges? British Journal of Educational Psychology, 79(3), 463–481. https://doi.org/10.1348/000709909X402811
Järvenoja, H., Volet, S., & Järvelä, S. (2013). Regulation of emotions in socially challenging learning situations: An instrument to measure the adaptive and social nature of the regulation process. Educational Psychology, 33(1), 31–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2012.742334
Johnson, T. E., Lee, Y., Lee, M., O'Connor, D. L., Khalil, M. K., & Huang, X. (2007). Measuring sharedness of team-related knowledge: Design and validation of a shared mental model instrument. Human Resource Development International, 10(4), 437–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678860701723802
Johnson, W. H., Dong, L., & Li, M. (2022). Conflict in Virtual Teams & Necessity of Cultural Intelligence for Effective Performance. In Academy of Management Proceedings (2022(1), 11500). : Academy of Management.
Jones, G. R., & George, J. M. (1998). The experience and evolution of trust: Implications for cooperation and teamwork. Academy of Management Review, 23(3), 531–546. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1998.926625
Kazemitabar, M., Lajoie, S. P., & Doleck, T. (2022). A process model of team emotion regulation: An expansion of Gross' individual ER model. Learning, Culture and Social Interaction, 33, 100612.
Kazemitabar, M. A. (2019). Examining the Effects of Socially-Shared Emotion Regulation on Team Coordination in a Physics Programming Competition (dissertation). https://www.proquest.com/docview/2515016557
Kazemitabar, M. A., Lajoie, S. P., & Li, T. (2022). A classification of Challenges encountered in Complex Teamwork Settings. International Journal of Computer-Supported Collaborative Learning, 1–23.
Kim, D. H. (1998). The link between individual and organizational learning. In D. Klein (Ed.), The strategic management of intellectual capital (pp. 41–62). Butterworth- Heinemann.
Kim, P. H., Dirks, K. T., Cooper, C. D., & Ferrin, D. L. (2006). When more blame is better than less: The implications of internal vs. external attributions for the repair of trust after a competence-vs. integrity-based trust violation. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 99(1), 49–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2005.07.002
Kirschner, P. A., Beers, P. J., Boshuizen, H. P., & Gijselaers, W. H. (2008). Coercing shared knowledge in collaborative learning environments. Computers in Human Behavior, 24(2), 403–420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2007.01.028
Kirschner, P. A., Kirschner, F., & Janssen, J. (2014). The collaboration principle in multimedia learning. In R. Mayer (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning (2nd ed., pp. 547–575). Cambridge University Press.
Komssi, M., Pichlis, D., Raatikainen, M., Kindstrom, K., & Jarvinen, J. (2015). What are Hackathons for? IEEE Software, 32(5), 60–67. https://doi.org/10.1109/ms.2014.78
Lee, P., Gillespie, N., Mann, L., & Wearing, A. (2010). Leadership and trust: Their effect on knowledge sharing and team performance. Management Learning, 41(4), 473–491. https://doi.org/10.1177/1350507610362036
Lehman, D. W., O’Connor, K., Kovács, B., & Newman, G. E. (2019). Authenticity. Academy of Management Annals, 13(1), 1–42. https://doi.org/10.5465/annals.2017.0047
Lewicki, R. J., & Brinsfield, C. (2012). Measuring trust beliefs and behaviours. In F. Lyon, G. Mollering, & M. Saunders (Eds.), Handbook of research methods on trust (pp. 29-39). Edward Elgar.
Lovelace, K., Shapiro, D. L., & Weingart, L. R. (2001). Maximizing cross-functional new product teams' innovativeness and constraint adherence: A conflict communications perspective. Academy of Management Journal, 44(4), 779–793. https://doi.org/10.5465/3069415
Mach, M., Dolan, S., & Tzafrir, S. (2010). The differential effect of team members' trust on team performance: The mediation role of team cohesion. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 83(3), 771–794. https://doi.org/10.1348/096317909X473903
Martínez-Miranda, J., & Pavón, J. (2011). Modeling the influence of trust on work team performance. Simulation, 88(4), 408–436. https://doi.org/10.1177/0037549711404714
Nair, N. (2008). Towards understanding the role of emotions in conflict: A review and future directions. International Journal of Conflict Management, 19(4), 359–381. https://doi.org/10.1108/10444060810909301
Nguyen-Duc, A., Cruzes, D. S., & Conradi, R. (2015). The impact of global dispersion on coordination, team performance and software quality–A systematic literature review. Information and Software Technology, 57, 277–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infsof.2014.06.002
Palanski, M. E., Kahai, S. S., & Yammarino, F. J. (2011). Team virtues and performance: An examination of transparency, behavioral integrity, and trust. Journal of Business Ethics, 99(2), 201–216. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-010-0650-7
Panadero, E., & Järvelä, S. (2015). Socially Shared Regulation of Learning: A Review. European Psychologist, 20(3), 190–203. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000226
Panadero, E., Kirschner, P. A., Järvelä, S., Malmberg, J., & Järvenoja, H. (2015). How individual self-regulation affects group regulation and performance: A shared regulation intervention. Small Group Research, 46(4), 431–454. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496415591219
Rentsch, J. R., & Klimoski, R. J. (2001). Why do ‘great minds’ think alike?: Antecedents of team member schema agreement. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 22(2), 107–120. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.81
Rousseau, D. M., Sitkin, S. B., Burt, R. S., & Camerer, C. (1998). Not so different after all: A cross-discipline view of trust. Academy of Management Review, 23(3), 393–404. https://doi.org/10.5465/AMR.1998.926617
Salas, E., Reyes, D. L., & McDaniel, S. H. (2018). The science of teamwork: Progress, reflections, and the road ahead. American Psychologist, 73(4), 593. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000334
Salas, E., Sims, D. E., & Burke, C. S. (2005). Is there a “Big Five” in teamwork? Small Group Research, 36(5), 555–599. https://doi.org/10.1177/1046496405277134
Sänger, J., Bechtold, L., Schoofs, D., Blaszkewicz, M., & Wascher, E. (2014). The influence of acute stress on attention mechanisms and its electrophysiological correlates. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 8, 353–368. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00353
Schrock, D., & Knop, B. (2014). Gender and emotions. In J. Stets & J. Turner (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of emotions: Volume II (pp. 411–428). Springer Dordrecht.
Shuffler, M., & Carter, D. (2018). Teamwork situated in multiteam systems: Key lessons learned and future opportunities. American Psychologist, 73(4), 390–406. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000322
Strode, D., Dingsøyr, T., & Lindsjorn, Y. (2022). A teamwork effectiveness model for agile software development. Empirical Software Engineering, 27(2). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10664-021-10115-0
Thompson, L., & Fine, G. A. (1999). Socially shared cognition, affect, and behavior: A review and integration. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(4), 278–302. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0304_1
Ujitani, E., & Volet, S. (2008). Socio-emotional challenges in international education Insight into reciprocal understanding and intercultural relational development. Journal of Research in International Education, 7(3), 279–303. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240908099975
Wegge, J., Jungmann, F., Liebermann, S., Shemla, M., Ries, B. C., Diestel, S., & Schmidt, K. H. (2012). What makes age diverse teams effective? Results from a six-year research program. Work, 41(1), 5145–5151. https://doi.org/10.3233/WOR-2012-0084-5145
Winne, P., Hadwin, A., & Perry, N. (2013). Metacognition and computer-supported collaborative learning. In C. Hmelo-Silver, C. Chinn, C. Chann, & A. O’Donnell. (Eds.), International handbook of collaborative learning (pp. 462-479). : Routledge
Xie, L. (2022). Flow in work teams: The role of emotional regulation, voice, and Team Mindfulness. Current Psychology, 41(11), 7867–7877. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01179-0
Funding
This work was funded in part by grants awarded to Dr. Susanne Lajoie from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC Partnership Grant) and doctoral fellowships awarded to Maedeh Kazemitabar from the Fonds de Recherche du Québec – Société et Culture (FRQSC) and McGill University.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
This article is based on a doctoral dissertation (Kazemitabar, 2019) conducted by the first author at McGill University. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Appendices
Appendix A
Appendix B
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Kazemitabar, M., Lajoie, S.P. & Doleck, T. Examining the Relationship Between Socially-Shared Emotion Regulation and Building Team Coordination Mechanisms During a Hackathon. Educ Inf Technol 29, 6241–6272 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12021-y
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-023-12021-y