1 Context, research object

The deployment of Digital Work Environments (DWE) in France involves three main issues: building a foundation for a coherent development of Information Communication Technology (ICT), reducing inequalities between institutions regarding the integration of various digital services and the managing of ICT in education at all levels. Studies of the use of digital tools in schools tend to consider them as a way to fight school failure and to encourage equal opportunity (Fourgous 2010).

Starting with the first DWE initiative in 2003 and the introduction of a directory chart beginning in 2006 (MEN 2006), several partnerships between territorial municipalities and educational institutions have been formed around a common will to generalize digital environment use in all schools in the medium term (MEN 2012). Since 2003, educational technology development in the Academy of Strasbourg has been set up within a Digital Work Environment project (DWE – named ENTEA in French) which resulted from a National Education Ministry call for projects (Zender 2011).

In addition, the Academy of Strasbourg has already experimented since 2002 and presented an ambitious project in the digital field on a very large scale by integrating activities in all school components: pedagogy, school life, communication, administration and concerning the whole community: teachers, parents, administrative persons. The DWE experimenting phase has started in 2004 in 15 schools and has been completed in 2007 in 45 schools with the help of DWE developed by Infostance SocietyFootnote 1 of Mulhouse, France. Later in April 2007, the DWE Scolastance, a product of Infostance Society, was chosen as a tool of generalization. Finally, the ENTEA2 project implemented the planned generalization from 2007 to 2010 and the last wave was achieved in the Academy of Strasbourg at the beginning of the school year 2010, i.e., in September 2010 (ENTEA 2010). Speaking about high schools at national level, in 2010, there were five regions that had DWE in more than 50 % of schools, among which 16 were in the generalizing phase (Zender 2011).

In this context of DWE generalization on the French, series of research was carried on in many regional educational authorities such as the AcademyFootnote 2 of Grenoble, Lyon, Rouen and that of Nancy. It was focused on the study of teachers’ perceptions of the digitals environments (Puimatto 2006), the integration of these tools in pedagogical practices and classroom management (Genevois and Poyet 2010) and their impact on the relationship between educators and students’ families (Voulgre 2011; Schneewele 2012).

The Digital Work Environment is based on software architecture that integrate institutional tools like absences, grades, report card, grades transcript, text notebook online and paper, communication tools like email and forum. There are also the pedagogical tools like collaborative environment and digital resources (Digital Kiosk Encyclopedia, etc.). Furthermore, these Digitals Work Environments differ from Learning Management System in that it must support the administrative and educational management of primary and secondary schools.

Our research was conducted in 2009–2010 in the context of generalization of DWE in the Academy of Strasbourg. It was focused on the analysis of intention to integrate DWE Scolastance among high school teachers’ practices. By “pedagogical practice” we consider, as Erixon did (2010), the teaching practice with pupils in class.

Among others, the DWE has reached the generalizing phase and as it could be checked at the Academy of Strasbourg, 15 schools have been implemented with this tool since 2003, there were already 45 in 2007. 41 % of schools have this tool for more than 4 years (Zender 2011).

The first part of this text introduces the context and the objective of this research. The second part consists of review literature of the previous works done in secondary school teachers’ perceptions and practices of DWE and other digital tools such as Internet web 2.0. This research investigates the influence of extrinsic factors (age, sex difference, teaching disciplines) and intrinsic factors (attitude towards computer, autonomy, and training of digital tools) on the integration of digital tools in teaching-learning situation in class. The third part describes the problematic elements and a proposed hypothetical model based on the research questions. Finally, the fourth part presents, on the one hand, the research methodology, and on the other hand, the analysis of data collected on the Scolastance DWE use, results and discussion in order to draw conclusions on research perspectives.

2 Digital environments and practices of secondary school teachers

2.1 DWE at school: Which features to which practices?

For the past three decades, in Europe and internationally, the development process of education technologies in a school environment brings about the development of research on the use of these technologies in teaching and learning practices. In France, since the introduction of ICT for all, the Ministry of National Education has worked on computer integration in teaching practices and in fact “this ministry action was included in the government plan action” (Government Action Program for the Information Society 1997–2002, For a Digital Republic in the Information Society 2002–2007) (Durpaire et al. 2012, p.14). In order to achieve this target in 2000, the first action for students with laptops have been made: Electronic Schoolbags in Savoie (Christian Marcel) and “The Landes Schoolbag” (Jaillet and Daguet 2002). Other projects aiming to bring technologies into schools have contributed to DWE design and development. This integrating digital environment take place in the project development of educational digital networks and encourages the nomadism allowing the distance access via the web. Meant to offer a “bunch of digital services” (MEN 2010), the DWE appears as a tool for modernizing the schools functioning activity (Bruillard 2011). Its main characteristic is to constitute an only access point to the information system and to the entire school’s resources (Puimatto 2006; Genevois and Poyet 2010). The results of research on DWE integration in secondary schools observe that “under this apparent uniqueness, the DWE coexist with four environments in which the logical seems different” (Genevois and Poyet 2010). Thus we can find nested digital environment composed of information and communication tools (that includes functionalities based on metaphors), and also of teaching and learning environment (that is beyond the limitations of an institution). However, as Genevois and Poyet (2010) observe, the relationship between these environments and their users reveal communities of practice in which the logical goes into contradiction. These remarks lead researchers to examine the effects of DWE usage on the school organization relating to time and space.

Other stream of research, in the French context, focuses on the DWE’s impact in classroom teaching and learning activities, on the process of installing these technologies (Puimatto 2006) and as well as on the study of discourse and actions of involved actors (Voulgre 2011). The mapping of such research studies, either completed works or are in progress, are presented in a recent synthesis proposed by Eric Bruillard (1997). We can find this research in information and communication sciences (Bruillard 2011), in management sciences (Missonier 2008) and in Education, more precisely the recent works of Emanuelle Voulgre (2011) and Manuel Schneewele (2012).

Within the boundaries of systemic approach, Voulgre’s work (2011) interrogated the services offered by DWE and the perceptions of users, not only teachers, students but also parents, on the pedagogical utility, and similarly on the classroom management and relationships with parents. The used theoretical framework is based on the “Caré de Padi” proposed by researcher Jacques Wallet (2010) with which the complementary approaches such as activity theory (Engeström 1987) and instrumental theory are linked for identification of the gap between prescribed and actual usages (Rabardel 1995; Bruillard 1997). The results of the research of five secondary school cases based on qualitative methodological approach lead to the conclusion that the educational potential in conjunction with the DWE is only partially exploited (Voulgre 2011).

In the same target for the deployment of DWE and the study of their impact on pedagogical practices, classroom management and school-family relationship, Schneewele (2012) conducted his thesis work in the Academy of Nancy-Metz. The author is interested in understanding the emerging uses of DWE, by performing a decomposition of the appropriation process. He explained that this research also meet institutional order whose political aim is facing the encouragement and stimulation of the uses of this type of tool. The theoretical framework was based on the proposal of the DAME model (Dynamic Model of Acceptance for Education), which is an extension of the Technology Acceptance Model (Davis 1989) thus taking into account the concepts of usefulness, usability, accessibility and social representation of DWE. The study, based on a predictive quantitative approach (using structural equation modeling), aimed to analyze the use of the digital notebook by students, their teachers and parents. The author believes that in order to foster a DWE and thus its acceptability in daily teaching activities, it is essential that its handling and its added value related to its use are fully perceived. Its results lead to conclude that if there is repeated use, an addiction to DWE can be installed when it becomes essential for the teacher’ activity (Schneewele 2012).

2.2 Gender and teaching disciplines: What influence on the integration of digital tools?

In this field, another research studied the teaching practices of secondary school teachers with digital technologies, and in particular, the use of environments for learning management (Wozney et al. 2006; Franklin 2007; Sørebø et al. 2009; Sang et al. 2010; De Smet et al. 2012) or further the use of the Internet, of Web 2.0 and of interactive tools for course materials projection (Chen 2010; Ward and Parr 2010; Chien et al. 2012; Ertmer et al. 2012). Following the qualitative and quantitative methodological approaches, these studies analyzed extrinsic factors (type, teaching subject/discipline, teaching experience with and without technology, age, computer access, perceived usability of communication tools and content management) and intrinsic factors (training in the use of ICT, teachers’ attitudes towards teaching and technology, self-efficiency with technology) that could influence the integration of these technologies in teaching-learning situations by secondary school teachers. They were made using conceptual frameworks from the psychology of human behavior such as self-determination theory (Gagné and Deci 2005), planned behavior theory (Ajzen and Fishbein 1977) as well as from the concepts like attitude, usefulness, usability (Tricot et al. 2003) and self-efficacy (Bandura 1977). Moreover, as pointed out by Bouabeng-Andoh (2012), the results of these studies lead to observe a variation of the significance of the influence of age and sex differences in the intention of integrating digital tools in teaching practices among secondary school teachers.

In order to ask the questions related to our research objective we refocus the aim of the research. In fact, we were interested to observe the influence of subject teaching and sex difference on the integration of these digital environments by teachers in their teaching practices.

Gender issue, in particular the relationship between sex differences and computer use by teachers has been discussed in many studies (Busch 1995; Volman and Van Eck 2001; Adams 2002; Norris et al. 2003; Wozney et al. 2006; Yukselturk and Bulut 2009). In the 2000s, the results of each research on these questions revealed a low level of computer use among both male and female teachers. The reasons of such situations were explained by limited interest and skills, but also by access problems (Volman and Van Eck 2001). If access problems were indeed present in the past years both in the urban and rural European countries and also in other countries, their frequency decreased over time (BECTA 2008).

The results of other recent studies show that male teachers use more often digital tools in their teaching and learning process than female teachers (Kay 2006; Wozney et al. 2006). However, the results vary depending on the attitudes towards digital tools, cultural contexts, school structure and its equipment in technological infrastructure (Hsu and Kuan 2013). Therefore, Kay (2006), in his study, observed the attitudes of male and female teachers towards digital tools before and after their installation in a school. The results of the research show that there was a significant relationship between sex difference and attitudes towards digital tools, but only before the implementation of technology in the school: male teachers had a higher level of positive attitude than female teachers. Wozney et al. (2006) examined the relationship between sex differences and the frequency of use of certain features of computers. Their results led them to conclude that male teachers reported using more frequently the computer for communication activities, analysis and creation than those of their counterpart female teachers. On the other hand, female teachers reported using the computer more frequently to prepare their teaching activities than male teachers (Wozney et al. 2006). These results are also observed in a recent study conducted by Hsu and Kuan (2013) on the impact of multi-factors on the integration of digital tools by Taiwanese teachers. Hsu and Kuan (2013) noted that male teachers got high scores in the integration of digital tools into their practice while their female counterparts score highly on the use of tools for text and Internet processing, whereas no sex differences were observed in the use of communication tools and professional development (Hsu and Kuan 2013).

Other studies have focused on studying the relationship between teachers’ attitudes towards digital tools and the integration of these tools in their teaching disciplines. Thus, in the context of a project facing various communities of practice, Sutherland et al. (2004) question the process of integration of digital tools in different teaching disciplines such as mathematics, languages, history and geography. The results show that most of the mathematics teachers were willing to integrate technology into their teaching. Teachers in Modern Languages have also developed strategies to integrate these tools into their teaching whereas working with digital tools in history and geography was more varied (Sutherland et al. 2004). In a study on the use of digital technologies and media in Swedish schools, Jedeskog (2005) found that teachers in mathematics, sciences and languages integrate technology into their practice more easily than teachers in other disciplines. Ward and Parr (2010) analyze the influence of socio-demographic factors on different types of professional use (preparation and planning sessions) and staff of teachers in secondary schools in New Zealand. These researchers observed significant differences between the teaching disciplines and the use of digital tools in the preparation and planning sessions. Thus, regarding the fundamental disciplines, mathematics, sciences, languages and social sciences, there is a low level of use of digital tools among teachers from schools where students come from wealthy families compared to other schools. Another research conducted by Erixon (2010) in the Swedish academic context questions the extent to which teachers use digital technologies in their teaching practices and what impact they would have on the course content. Among the subjects taught (teaching disciplines), use of technology was the most frequent in history, geography and social studies. Erixon (2010) observed that arts and music teachers also showed involvement in using technologies such as webcam and mobile technologies. This phenomenon was explained by the interest of the teachers involved in this study in youth culture and the use of modern technologies (Erixon 2010).

3 Elements of issues and hypotheses

This contribution describes our research on the intentions analysis of DWE integration in high-school teachers’ practices. It lies in the problem of DWE generalization in secondary schools by questioning the relationship between factors, such as teaching disciplines, sex differences or perceived technical skills, daily personal use, and teachers’ intention to integrate digital tools of DWE Scolastance into their practices.

As we described above in § 2, this issue has been the subject of many studies in France and in other countries. Among these various works, some contribute to a better understanding of the process of acceptance and use of DWE integrated tools by teachers. The results of these studies showed that teachers reported using DWE integrated tools such as the online digital text- notebook and the communication space (Genevois and Poyet 2010; Schneewele 2012). It was also found that parents showed interest in the use of online digital text-book (Schneewele 2012). However, other results indicated that the pedagogical potential of DWE was only partially exploited (Voulgre 2011). These findings are similar as those of many studies on the effective integration of ICT in schools (Larose and Jaillet 2009; Balanskat et al. 2006; Karsenti et al. 2008.).

Other research studies on the integration of educational technology considered that exogenous and endogenous factors influence their use (Chaptal 2007). Thus, the results of works on sex differences (exogenous factor) and attitudes towards computers (endogenous factor) vary according to cultural contexts, teachers’ perceptions of their technical skills or the school structures (Hsu and Kuan 2013). More recently, studies have shown a reduction in the gender gap related to the use of computers and, more generally, digital technologies. Both women and men reported to have a daily personal or professional use of digital technologies (Norris et al. 2003). In addition, a positive perception of the quality of technology can contribute to reduce further the gender inequalities (Kay 2006).

The teaching subject is considered as an endogenous factor that influences teacher’s perceptions of the pedagogical added value of digital technologies (Ruthven et al. 2005). The relationship between technology and teaching disciplines has been noticed to be positively perceived by teachers of arts and music, geography and languages (Erixon 2010; Wikan and Molster 2011). In science and mathematics, the results vary according to teachers’ perceptions on improving the quality of presentation of course content and the added value in terms of learning (Ward and Parr 2010; Wikan and Molster 2011).

Based on these different findings, some questions arise in connection with our research: Do secondary school teachers with access to the DWE Scolastance use institutional tools? What place do they give in their practice to communication tools or to accessible digital resources since the DWE was integrated in their school? Are there any correlations between exogenous factors (such as gender differences, teaching experience) and endogenous ones (teaching disciplines, usability, and usefulness) and their attitude towards the integration of DWE Scolastance in their practice? Is there any pedagogical use of DWE?

These issues have contributed to the development of hypotheses and to the formulation of an hypothetical model.

  1. H1)

    There is a significant effect of sex difference on the relationship between the acceptance of the institutional tools usage (grades and absences registration, grades files editing and grades transcript) and the intention of DWE effective use.

  2. H2)

    There is a significant effect of sex difference on the relationship between persistence in using DWE (despite technical difficulties teacher meet) and their integration into the pedagogical practices of secondary school teachers. Indeed, by verifying this hypothesis we are interested in observing teachers’ behavior and especially their DWE acceptance while facing technical problems (e.g., home page setting difficulty or access to institutional tools).

  3. H3)

    There is a significant effect of sex difference on the relationship between the acceptance of using the DWE collaborative space and the communication tools on the intention of integrating them into pedagogical practices.

  4. H4)

    There is a causal effect of daily practice with digital environments (computers, Internet, e-mail) on the intention of integrating the DWE in teaching practices.

  5. H5)

    There is a significant difference in the variable “teaching disciplines” while using institutional and communication tools of DWE.

4 Intention of integrating a DWE: Proposal of an hypothetical model

In order to get some answers to our research questions, we proposed an hypothetical model comprising of three dimensions: socio-demographic, pedagogical and technical ones.

4.1 Some theoretical contributions

Socio-demographic dimension (SD). This dimension takes into account exogenous factors such as age, gender differences, teaching experience (Fig. 1). Lin (2008) through his research results exclaims that teacher effectiveness in using these technologies depends largely on their experiences and cultural and social values. Many studies on gender differences in the relationship between teachers and technology observe varying results depending on the context and cultural values but also in terms of categories of these technologies (word processing, communication, counting simulation), and aim of professional or personal use (Li and Kirkup 2008; Hsu and Kuan 2013). This varied nature of previous researches leads us to explore the existence of associations between sex differences and teaching practices with DWE Scolastance.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Hypothetical model based on the socio-demographic, pedagogical and technical dimension

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Thus, we consider the differences in sex and age as exogenous variables included in the proposed model (Fig. 1). With respect to this dimension, on one hand, the variables “sex difference, age”, and on the other hand, “everyday practices” with the computer and other digital tools, are included in our hypothetical model.

Pedagogical dimension (ED). This dimension takes into account the collaborative space and communication tools in our proposed hypothetical model. Several studies on the relationship between constructivist representations of teachers and the integration of ICT have shown that these are important factors in determining the use of computers in the classroom, both among confirmed teachers and beginners (Taylor et al. 1994; Rheaume and Laferrière 2002; Sang et al. 2010). On the same issues, Honey and Moeller (1990) showed that teachers adopting pedagogical approaches focused on the student-centered teaching, successfully integrated into their practice, the collaborative tools and digital resources, except in those cases when the teacher’s skill acquisition is ineffective (Honey and Moeller 1990). One of our aims was to observe if teachers implement constructivist teaching approaches while using DWE Scolastance, and in particular, collaborative space and communication tools while teaching students. In our model, the collaborative space and communication tools are integrated into “pedagogical spaces” (Fig. 1). In the educational aspect of our approach, it is also found the variable “academic subject”. Studies on this topic show that these endogenous factors have a significant effect on the integration of technology by teachers (O’Dwyer et al. 2004; Shearer 2008; Hsu and Kuan 2013).

Technical dimension (TD). This dimension refers to the concepts of usability (ease of use, taking into hands) and usefulness perceived by teachers. These concepts have been incorporated into many works on the acceptance of technologies for teacher training (Tricot et al. 2003; Wozney et al. 2006; Sørebø et al. 2009; Schneewele 2012). In agreement with Chen (Chen 2010) we consider technical environment as a prerequisite involving access to technology, support in case of technical difficulties and necessary temporality for integrating this technology in order to make an effective use of it. In our study, we consider that the usability of the DWE Scolastance and the level of persistence in its use, despite the technical difficulties, are significant factors influencing teachers’ intention to incorporate it into their pedagogical practices. These factors are included in the model on “Perseverance with the DWE” and “daily practices” with computers or other digital tools.

All the elements, from different approaches presented above, were used to build a model whose description is given below.

4.2 The proposed hypothetical model

The model presented in the Fig. 1 is constitutes on socio-demographical (sexes differences, age) as independent variables; mediating variables, pedagogical (subject teaching, digital collaborative space and resources) and institutional factors (digital notebook grades and student absences) as well as the secondary teachers access to digital work environment (DWE) and their private and professional use of computers and dependent variable of teacher’s perseverance with the DWE. This model proposed that the influence of independent variables on the dependent variable, mediating through the three variables, results into the response variable of the teachers’ intention to integrate the DWE in their pedagogical practices despite the technical difficulties.

Through this model, we planned to verify whether the relationship between these dimensions has a significant influence on teachers’ practices and on the intent of the effective use of ICT: Are there any effects related to differences in gender, age, taught subject on the intention of the DWE integrating in their practices? In achieving this aim, our hypotheses were tested using correlations between factors as well as structural equation modeling, especially causal path analysis (Fig. 2). Later we tested the causal effects of the moderator variable “sex difference”.

Fig. 2
figure 2

Causal path of hypothetical model

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5 Research methodology

In order to collect the data suitable for testing our hypotheses in conditions that are suitable for reliable results, a mixed method approach based on quantitative and qualitative research methodologies was adopted. The primary objective of this part is to analysis of the results obtained through the quantitative survey (by using a questionnaire) conducted on teachers from vocational and technological schools of the Academy of Strasbourg. These teachers were selected by using random sampling technique. Out of 41 institutions (professional and technical high schools), requested by email, 71 % offered our questionnaire to their teachers. The rate of return was 24.5 %. Our valid sample consisted of 430 high school teachers who answered to this survey.

Relying on the proposed model in § 4, a questionnaire was built, consisting of three parts, such as institutional digital space (digital space for entering absences, grades, digital text notebook), the pedagogical digital space (digital resources and communication tools, the collaborative space) and perseverance in the use of DWE Scolastance despite of possible technical difficulties encountered by interviewee teachers. A description of the methodology and of the questionnaire will be discussed in the next section of this paper.

The questionnaire consisted of about 30 items grouped into to measure daily computer use, and DWE institutional, communication and pedagogical tools use by secondary school teachers. In our study we observed also the teachers’ perceived usability of DWE. The perceived usability refers to ease of use and to general quality of an information system (Tricot et al. 2003; Betrancourt 2007). The dependent variables were the daily use of digital environment, the institutional tools (absences, grades, report card, grades transcript, text notebook online and paper), communication (email, forum), perseverance in the use of DWE (difficulties in handling the DWE, difficulties persistence, autonomy in solving technical problems) and the use of collaborative space and digital resources (Digital Kiosk Encyclopedia, etc.). The independent variables were age, sex difference, experience in working with computer. A second step of our methodological framework consisted of a series of semi-structured interviews with 19 volunteer teachers out of 430 participants in the survey questionnaire. The objective of this qualitative approach was to insert an additional, comprehensive approach in interpreting the results obtained from the quantitative survey.

6 Research results: Quantitative and qualitative approaches

To analyze the obtained data after refining process, the descriptive statistics, correlation matrix, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and structural equation modeling approach were used (Quinn and Keough 2002; Vaus 2002). In order to test if there is a significant difference between two or more groups, the descriptive statistics and analysis of variance were measured by using the SPSS V.17 software. Further, to test the hypothetical model, the causal path analysis was calculated by structural equation modeling approach using the AMOS V.16 software (Arbuckle 2007).

6.1 The correlation analysis

The bivariate correlations were computed among the model variables in Table 1. The following Table 1 shows the number of respondents in the total sample size (N), the means (M), the standard deviations (SD) and the correlation matrix.

Table 1 Adjustment evaluation of model variables
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As we can observe in the Table 1, there is a positive significant relation between the daily use of digital environment (Internet, computer, DWE) and the teachers’ intention to integrate it despite the technical difficulties. Likewise, there is a positive significant relation between the teachers’ use of communication and collaboration digital tools and the DWE impact on pedagogical practices. However, as we observe in the Fig. 2, there is a negative significant relation between the institutional digital tools and acceptance intention of DWE use despite the technical difficulties.

6.2 Structural equation modeling

In order to test our hypothetical model, we used a structural equation modeling approach to determine the path analysis. Before describing the research results of the model test, we give some theoretical considerations about this statistical approach.

There are basically four levels to reach at the testing of the model, these are: model specification, model identification, model estimation and model testing (Byrne 2001; Hair et al. 2010; Loehlin 2004; Schumacker and Lomax 2004). The first requirement is model specification, which is, in fact, developing such theoretical model based on relevant theory and literature review that can be confirmed with variance-covariance data (Schumacker and Lomax 2004; p.62). Thus, it involves the process of selecting variables of interest and proposing the relationship among them in a model. The next stage is model identification on the basis of sample data, which is a primary requirement to precede statistically the model fit. A model is identified (just-identified or over-identified) if the number of data points is equal to, or greater than, the number of free parameters in a model. If the model is under-identified or not identified, that is, if the number of data points is less than the number of free parameters, then in such case, model fit stage cannot proceed. In AMOS, only in the case of identified model, fit indices for a model can be obtained.

The last and most important stage is model testing. The primary goal of using structural equation modeling is to explore a statistical significant model that has also practical and substantive meaning (Schumacker and Lomax 2010, p.81). In general there are three main criteria to judge the significance and substantive meaning of the model, in which the first one is model testing. Model testing is the procedure to determine how well the data fit the model. This is the stage where it is tested that to what extent a theoretical model is supported and verified by the sample data. The basic statistic in model testing fit indices is Chi-square test (Abbas 2011). A statistically non-significant χ 2-value affirms that model fit the data well. From this it means that the “sample covariance matrix and reproduced model-implied covariance matrix are same” (Schumacker and Lomax 2010, p.81). But in the case of large sample size, e.g., N > 700, χ 2 does not remain a consistent measure of model fitting (Hair et al. 2010; Tabachnick and Fidell 2007). Thus, it is highly recommended by researchers (Lomax 1983; Schumacker and Lomax 2010; Tabachnick 1996, Tabachinick and Fidell 2007) that, other fit indices should be used to measure the goodness of fit at the place of χ 2.

In our case, we processed the data from 430 teachers of French secondary schools. This sample size reveals that only chi-square may not be the reliable indicator. Therefore, normed indices will be used as the indicators for making the decisions about the model of this study. So, in order to test this hypothetical model, other indices NFI, CFI, RMSEA will be used to test the model (Lomax 1983; Hair et al. 2010; Tabachnick and Fidell 2007). In fact, we were interested to determine the best model among those presented in Table 2.

Table 2 Adjustment evaluation of model variables
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Our first objective was to estimate the causal effect on the model explained variable “DWE integration in pedagogical practices”. Then, we measured the direct and indirect effect of the independent variables on “acceptance intention use of DWE”. The χ 2 = 16.320 (df = 11), p < 0.013 is significant: it is obvious that for a large sample, N = 430, the chi-square value can be significant (Tabachnick et Fidell 2007). Therefore, we observed that the normed chi-square, i.e., χ 2/df = 1.484, is within the acceptable limit. In addition, the incremental adjustment measures, Normed fit index NFI = 0.923, Comparative fit index CFI = 0.971 and Root Mean square error of approximation RMSEA = 0.033 show that the data fit the model well. Moreover, the causal path coefficients related to variables, digital resources, collaborative digital tools use, and digital communication tools, have a significant direct effect on the perseverance with the DWE use variable. The causal path coefficients related to daily practices with digital tools and institutional digital tools variables have a significant direct effect on teachers’ acceptance intention to integrate the DWE in their pedagogical practices.

Thus, following obtained results, in the model presented on the Fig. 2, we observe that among the five independent variables, the digital resources use and variables related to both tools, communication and collaborative, indirectly predict, by the « perseverance with DWE » variable, the teachers intention to integrate the DWE in their pedagogical practices. Whereas the same response-variable was directly predict by the digital institutional tools and daily practices with computers model’ variables.

Furthermore, as shown in the Table 2, our data validated many models. By applying the chi-square difference test (Hair et al. 2010), we obtained that the model 2, 4 and 5 was better than another one. The model 4 is the best of all.

6.3 Test hypothesis for sex difference and subject teaching

For testing the research hypothesis, we used the causal path and the values of the linear regression coefficients, shown on the both Figs. 3 and 4. Thereby, as regards the H1, the regression coefficient value (β = −0.15 for male; β = −0.07 for female) shows that the “sex difference” variable has a non-significant negative influence on the causal relation of institutional digital tools (grades, student absences) and teachers acceptance intention to integrate the DWE in their pedagogical practices. This leads us to conclude that during the technical difficulties, abandonment is preferred by teachers’ categories, men and women. However, there are more women who abandon the use of institutional tools than men.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Gender influence (men category) on the variables relations

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Fig. 4
figure 4

Gender influence (women category) on the variables relations

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The second hypothesis was also confirmed. Thus, as shown in the Figs. 3 and 4, the “sex difference” variable has an influence on the “DWE integration in the pedagogical practices”. This means that unlike for female teachers, this causal path relation is non-significant positive for the male-teachers group. This contrast can be explained in that when the female-teachers have a technical difficulty with DWE, they abandon it. For the male-teachers group who report integrating the DWE in their pedagogical practices, the use intention increases.

With regard to third hypothesis, the results show that for both groups, female and male teachers, there is a significant direct influence of communication and collaboration tools use on the perseverance with DWE use. In contrast, for both genders, there is no significant indirect effect on the teachers’ intention to integrate the DWE in their pedagogical practices. The fourth hypothesis was partially confirmed (Fig. 2).

The results related to the fourth hypothesis are shown in the Figs. 3 and 4. For the female-teachers, the causal relation is significant at β = 0.31 and not significant for the male-teachers. Unlike the male-teachers, for the female-teachers, the daily use of computers and other digital tools increases their level of acceptance intention to use the DWE despite the technical difficulties.

In order to test the fifth hypothesis we used ANOVA. The results leads to observe that there is a significant effect of “subjects teaching” variable on the use of the DWE functionalities, particularly the communication tools, F (4, 343) = 3.782, p < 0.001. Moreover, we specify that among subjects teaching, the Professional area (M = 2.231, SD = 0.514) has more significant effect on the communication digital tools of DWE than others. However, there is no significant effect of this same variable on the institutional digital tools of DWE.

6.4 Processing and interpretation of interviews

Our results obtained from the quantitative survey are completed by a series of interviews with 19 teachers from professional high schools of the Academy of Strasbourg. This sample was selected by using a “volunteering” approach; a case, in which, respondents were not in conflict of interest with the research team. This seems to withdraw any kind of influence in the interviewers’ expectations that could have arisen if the last ones opted for a “through networks” approach.

6.4.1 Treatment procedure

The interviews were recorded and then transcribed in order to make content accessible to a thematic analysis. These data were processed by categorical content analysis (L’Ecuyer 1990). A first series of successive readings of the corpus consisting of transcripts of these 19 interviews helped in identifying thematic categories and building the analytical framework. Thus we have observed that the speech was structured around themes about the use of tools integrated in the Scolastance DWE such as institutional (absences, gradebook), communication (e-mail) and pedagogical ones. In this research, we consider the digital text notebook and collaborative learning space as elements of ENT Scolastance.

We took into account the educational subjects of the interviewed teachers and the arguments they gave for their choice to use the DWE, including the frequency of use and the type of practice they did with this tool.

6.4.2 Interpretation of results

The survey sample was composed of mathematics, history-geography, languages, economics and management, commerce, physics and biotechnology teachers. It consisted of 13 men and 6 women whose teaching experience ranged from 7 to 35 years. We found through the interviews that the frequency of use of integrated tools ranged from “daily” to “never.” With the exception of 2 out of 19 teachers, all the others reported a routine use (daily) of the tool for absences and grade book management. The text notebook was also used by a large majority of the interviewees. Among the 19 who reported using it in a systematic manner, two teachers said they did it “because it was obligatory (ens_9_math; ens_1_geogr)”.

In addition, teachers’ perceptions on the DWE pedagogical dimension were found in the content of the interviews. Thus, the text notebook, the collaborative space and space “Encyclopedia Digital Kiosk” (EDK) were perceived by their users - teachers interviewed, as digital tools for pedagogical purposes. In language teaching, teachers reported that they use the digital text notebook by incorporating attachments of Webquest application type for their students. However, software incompatibility problems related to attachments to digital text notebook have presented by mathematics teachers. These teachers use their text notebooks by attaching personal documents specific to their subject whose format is not always compatible with the word processing software available on the computers in classroom.

The collaborative space and encyclopedia EDK are also integrated into the pedagogical practice of teachers surveyed, more precisely Mathematics, Economics-Management, History and Geography teachers. In the collaborative space, the functionalities are used for storing and sharing documents with students, for doing, for example, the homework correction. In contrast, language teachers reported not using these features (collaborative and EDK resources-space) because of technical problems encountered in the classroom or lack of a skillful techno-pedagogical use of these digital tools.

7 Discussions and research limits

The results of this study show that the DWE Scolastance generalization in secondary schools is perceived by teachers participating in our survey as a transitional stage in the process of digital technologies integration in teaching and learning practices. We wanted to know what Scolastance DWE integrated tools were used and the extent to which teachers, potential users of this digital environment, incorporated them in their pedagogical practices. Assumptions related to the relationship between sex differences and the use of tools integrated into the DWE were raised and verified by the results obtained at the end of our quantitative survey using a closed questionnaire. The existence of differences in teaching subjects related to the use of communication or institutional tools, was also an objective of this research.

The results obtained in relation to gender differences show that the use of collaborative space and communication tools has a significant direct effect on the intention to integrate the DWE Scolastance in the practices of both female teachers and in those of male teachers. However, female teachers who encountered technical difficulties or problems with control access to computers abandoned the use of DWE features, whereas among male teachers who reported perseverance in using the features of DWE despite the difficulties encountered in technical mastery, the intention of effective use increase. We also observed among female teachers, unlike their male counterparts, that daily use of the computer increases the level of acceptance intention of the DWE despite the technical difficulties.

Similar results were observed by Kay (2006) in a study on gender and teachers’ attitudes towards digital technology. Indeed, his results showed a significant influence of gender on teachers’ attitudes, only before the implementation of a digital environment in the school. The interviewed men teachers had more positive attitudes towards the teaching technologies than women teachers (Kay 2006). Even through DWE Scolastance was established for several years, the results of our study shows that male teachers give up less than female teachers using the features of classroom management (absences, text notebook, grade notebook) of communication and collaboration.

The teachers’ perceptions of the usability and usefulness of the text notebook, of information and communication areas of DWE has also been the subject of recent studies (Genevois and Poyet 2010; Voulgre 2011; Schneewele 2012). Our results corroborate these studies with observations on the use of the textbook, of absence management and gradebook. The tools referred to “pedagogy” as collaborative space and type of encyclopedia resources accessible on the DWE Scolastance don’t prove to be only partially integrated by interviewed teachers. Non-users specify, especially in their interviews, some problems of usability and pedagogical usefulness. However, possible interested teachers intend to use more them if their operation becomes stable from a technical point of view. Similar to Voulgre’s work (2011), these findings lead to the conclusion that the educational potential in conjunction with the DWE is only partially integrated.

The question on the significant differences between the disciplines of teaching and the use of the DWE features was treated as part of this contribution. The results indicate that there is a significant difference between the disciplines of teaching and the use of communication tools. Let’s recall that among the disciplines of teachers surveyed, the “Professional” area has a more significant effect on the use of communication tools in DWE. On the other hand, there is no significant effect of this variable on the use of institutional tools. This result is probably related to the high school profile, technical and vocational, used in this work. Taking into account the qualitative approach of this work, speeches of the interviews come to emphasize the fact that teachers of subjects referred to vocational, which form the institutions of our study, often use the communication space on the DWE to communicate with trainee students found in their home businesses.

The link between teaching subject and pedagogical use of the collaborative space and the textbook is also a discussion theme starting from the results of the interviews. Although statistically our data do not reveal subject differences in the use of digital text notebook, the interviews make us notice some use elements among geography and languages teachers. Thus, languages, history and geography teachers reported that they do not know how to use technically the collaborative space but they perceive the pedagogical value of digital text notebook, when used with interactive applications for students. In addition, the language teachers interviewees perceive the pedagogical potential of digital resources and say they’ll make a systematic use of them in their class session. In contrast, mathematics teachers use the collaborative and storage space for correcting homework or for providing additional resources for students in the course. These findings corroborate those of Sutherland et al. (2004), Jedeskog (2005) and Erixon (2010).

7.1 Limitations of this research

This paper presents the results of a research on teaching practices with digital technologies and in particular with the DWE Scolastance developed under the ENTEA2 project (Learning Digital Work Environment). It attempts to provide answers to the issues related to the influence of sex differences and teaching subjects on the use of this DWE by teachers from technological and vocational high schools in the Academy of Strasbourg.

Nevertheless, it presents conceptual and methodological limitations. Regarding the conceptual aspects, this research used the concepts of utility, usability and pedagogical practices and was about teachers’ perceptions of these three concepts related to digital technologies. If the study of the first two concepts (utility and usability) can be achieved by using a quantitative approach of questionnaire survey, this is not the case in the study of teaching practices. As we have well defined them, teaching practices are related to the students. To increase the conceptual and methodological reliability and the quality of results of a similar research, an experimental protocol that integrates students is therefore required. .

Regarding methodological aspects, the limits are at the level of the sample size for interviews. In addition, a longitudinal combined (quantitative and qualitative) approach will provide relevant elements for understanding the results observed in the development of teaching practices among teachers and students.

8 Conclusion

This study concluded that the obtained results tend to demonstrate that the DWE is primarily perceived as a “communication tool” via email, or as a means of meeting the prescribed by the institution uses (marks and absences entries). In addition, these results demonstrated the existence of associations between teachers’ sex difference and teaching disciplines, on the one hand, the institutional communication tools and technical difficulties, on the other hand, the use of ICT by teachers (female and male) of different teaching subjects is not strongly rooted in classroom practice or in the design of course materials. Furthermore, the results of the thematic analysis of interviews with a sample of 19 teachers in vocational schools lead us to observe the trend of their argument on the non-use of DWE Scolastance for pedagogical purposes (lack of teacher training with these digital environments, technical problems during class sessions). Thus, they regretted the vertical dimension in the prescribed uses that cater to an imaginary teacher and do not respond to the real needs and feelings experienced in their daily teaching practice. From these considerations, we question the difference between the prescriptive nature of the use and the one declared, in order to know whether there is a link between teachers’ attitudes towards the use of ICT and in particular of DWE Scolastance and the integration of these tools in teaching practices. Or, do teachers feel a training need not technical but more of a reflective nature, aimed at supporting their effective integration into their teaching practices?

The results of our interview analysis (N = 19) showed that practices with technology, including with DWE, are far from being systematic or generalized. Teachers in various teaching disciplines, such as history, geography, foreign languages, technology and physical sciences are “all digital”. However, others teachers do not benefit from educational technology due to lack of practice, inexperience or lack of familiarity with digital tools.