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Analysis of the Enforcement of the Suppression of Piracy and Other Maritime Offences Act in Nigeria: Matters Arising

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Abstract

The existence of antipiracy legislation is an effective counterpiracy measure. Thus, the enactment of the Suppression of Piracy and Other Maritime Offences (SPOMO) Act in 2019 is a significant step in Nigeria’s counterpiracy efforts. This article analyses the Act and its enforcement to determine the current state of piracy suppression in Nigeria. The article observes that despite containing the meaning of contemporary piracy, the Act does not provide the interpretation of the phrase the “relevant authority”, and may have contravened Nigeria’s constitution in terms of the detention of suspects. Also, exogenous factors, exemplified by institutional limitations and the absence of political will to curb piracy by the Nigerian government, impede the proper enforcement of the SPOMO Act in curbing piracy in Nigeria. The article argues that the existence of law without proper enforcement and interpretation would not lead to deterrence. The article, therefore, suggests reviewing the Act, adequately funding maritime enforcement agencies, strengthening the judiciary, reforming the criminal justice system, prosecuting piracy enablers and beneficiaries, and cultivating the political will to curb piracy by the Nigerian government as some of the measures to effectively enforce the SPOMO Act to suppress piracy in Nigeria.

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Notes

  1. See “Nigeria Launches Deep Blue Campaign to Stop Regional Piracy” The Maritime Executive (FL. USA, 10 June 2021) <https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/nigeria-launches-deep-blue-campaign-to-stop-regional-piracy> accessed 22 November 2022. The Nigerian Maritime Administration and Safety Agency (NIMASA) initiated the Deep Blue Project. See “Navy’s Support for the Maritime DEEP Blue Project” Dryad Global (London, 23 November 2020) <https://channel16.dryadglobal.com/navys-support-for-the-maritime-deep-blue-project> accessed 22 November 2022.

  2. The Federal Republic of Nigeria v Binaebi Johnson & Co, Suit No.FHC/PH/62c/2020 (Unreported). See the Federal Republic of Nigeria v Frank Insort Abaka & 9 ors, Suit No.FHC/L/170C/2020 (Unreported).

  3. “Pirates Abduct Six Julius Berger Workers in Nigeria, Demands N600 million” Sahara Reporters (New York, 24 March 2021)

    <https://saharareporters.com/2021/03/24/pirates-abduct-six-julius-berger-workers-nigeria-demand-n600million> accessed 22 November 2022; “Pirates Abduct Six Julius Berger Workers in Nigeria, Demands N600 million/Sahara Reporters” Head Topics Nigeria (Manitoba, 24 March 2021) <https://headtopics.com/ng/pirates-abduct-six-julius-berger-workers-in-nigeria-demand-n600million-sahara-reporters-19356029> accessed 30 April 2023.

  4. Libby George “Pirates are Attacking Ships in Gulf of Guinea. Here’s Why and the Impact” Insurance Journal (San Diego, CA, 26 January 2021) <https://www.insurancejournal.com/news/international/2021/01/26/598824.htm> accessed 22 November 2022.

  5. See generally, Kalu Kingsley Anele “The Potential Impact of Piracy on the ACFTA: A Nigerian Perspective” (2021a) 8(1) Journal of Territorial and Maritime Studies, https://doi.org/10.2307/JTMS.8.1.5, 5, 5–26; Kalu Kingsley Anele “Harvest of Arrests but no Prosecution: Ideation toward Strengthening the Legal Regime for Prosecuting Pirates in Nigeria” (2020c) 46(4) Commonwealth Law Bulletin, https://doi.org/10.1080/03050718.2020.1774402, 611, 611–39; Chijioke J. Nwalozie “Exploring Contemporary Sea Piracy in Nigeria, the Niger Delta and the Gulf of Guinea” (2020) Journal of Transportation Security, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12198-020-00218-y; Theophilus Nwokedi, et al “Frustration-Aggression-Theory Approach Assessment of Sea Piracy and Armed Robbery in Nigerian Industrial Trawler Fishery Sub-sector of the Blue Economy, (2020) 8(2) Journal of ETA Maritime Science, https://doi.org/10.5505/jems.2020.29053, 114, 114–32.

  6. Other crimes like terrorism, kidnapping, and financial crimes (example money laundering) are coterminous with piracy. See Maurice Ogbonna, “Nigeria’s Anti-piracy Law Misses the Mark” Institute for Security Studies, 7 May 2020 <https://issafrica.org/iss-today/nigerias-anti-piracy-law-misses-the-mark> accessed 22 November 2022.

  7. Olawoyin suggests that legislative or judicial intervention is necessary to resolve conflicting provisions or omissions in a statute. See Adewale A. Olawoyin “Enforcement of Maritime Claims: The Unintended Consequences of Constitutional Change on Admiralty Jurisdiction in Nigeria” (2021) 12(1) The Gravitas Review of Business & Property Law 1, 11.

  8. See ICC International Maritime Bureau (IMB), “Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships, Report for the period 1 January – 31 December 2021” January 2022, (hereinafter referred to as IMB Piracy Report for 2021), 6; ICC International Maritime Bureau (IMB), “Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships, Report for the period 1 January – 31 December 2019” January 2020, (hereinafter referred to as IMB Piracy Report for 2019) 5.

  9. Nigerian pirates kidnap seafarers and hold them to ransom. See “Pirates Abduct Six Julius Berger Workers in Nigeria, Demands N600million” (n 3). They steal the cargo of the hijacked vessel, especially crude oil, and sell it in the black market. See Anele “Harvest of Arrest but no Prosecution” (n 5) at 618. They engage in petty theft, among other crimes. See IMB Piracy Report for 2020, 23/29-30; IMB Piracy Report for 2019, 24.

  10. Nigerian pirates attack oil tankers. See Anele “Harvest of Arrest but no Prosecution” ibid at 618–19. They attack fishing trawlers. See T. Nwokedi, et al (n 5). Pirates in Nigeria attack supply vessels. See “Pirates Abduct Six Julius Berger Workers in Nigeria, Demands N600 million” ibid. They also hijack container vessels. See George (n 4).

  11. Anele “Harvest of Arrest but no Prosecution” ibid at 619.

  12. See Anele “The Potential Impact of Piracy on the ACFTA” (n 5) at 13; Anele “Harvest of Arrest but no Prosecution” ibid at 618–20.

  13. Anele “Harvest of Arrest but no Prosecution” ibid at 613. In view of piracy in the Gulf of Guinea, it has been submitted that the Niger Delta region of Nigeria has remained the central point of the crime. This is because most of the “pirates that have been arrested are from Nigeria” and “all hijacked vessels or kidnapped crew have been brought into Nigeria’s territorial waters, held in captivity in Nigeria and released subsequently after negotiations and payments of ransom”. Kamal-Deen Ali & Yussif Benning “Gulf of Guinea: The Old, the New and the Dark Shades’ Maritime Governance Brief, Centre for Maritime Law & Security 2(1) 2020, 3.

  14. IMB Piracy Report for 2021 (n 8) at 6.

  15. ibid at 23. See also the IMB Piracy Report for 2019 (n 8) at 21; Mario Tsioufis, Antonios Fytopoulos & Dimitra Kalaitzi “Discovering Maritime-piracy Hotspots: A Study Based on AHP and Spatio-temporal Analysis” (2023) Annals of Operations Research, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10479-023-05352-z.

  16. See generally, Isabella Durant Impact of Covid-19 Pandemic on Trade and Development: Lessons Learned (United Nations 2022) 1–71; Dimitris Gavalas, Theodoros Syriopoulos & Michael Tsatsaronis “Covid-19 Impact on the Shipping Industry: An Event Study Approach” (2022) 116 Transport Policy 157, 157–64; Kalu Kingsley Anele “A Critical Analysis of the Implications of Covid-19 on Piracy off the Nigerian Coast” (2021) 18(2) Brazilian Journal of International Law 107, 114.

  17. Anele “The Potential Impact of Piracy on the ACFTA” (n 5) at 16.

  18. ibid at 15, citing “Maritime Piracy: Nigeria Losses US$2.74bn in Four Years” Hellenic Shipping News, 26 November 2018. It has been reported that Nigeria loses about US$2.8billion annually due to piracy and other maritime crimes. Charles A. Adeogun-Phillips “The Investigation of Crimes in Nigeria under the Suppression of Piracy and Other Maritime Offences Act: Challenges and Potential” a paper presented at NIMASA-NIALS 9th Admiralty Law Seminar for Judges, 19-21 February 2020.

  19. Anele ibid at 16. See also Nwokedi, et al (n 5); Abdullahi S. Usman, et al “Impact of Piracy and Sea Robbery on Fishing Business in Nigeria” (2019) 20(4) Review of International Comparative Management 396, 401; Adongoi Toakodi, et al “The Impact of Sea Robbery on Artisanal Fishing in Rural Settlements in Niger Delta region of Nigeria” (2017) 1 International Journal of Innovation and Sustainability 32, 34–40.

  20. Anele ibid at 5–26.

  21. Kalu Kingsley Anele “The Potential Effects of Piracy on the Art-Craft Industry: A Comparative Analysis of Nigeria and Indonesia” (2020a) 10(2) Indonesian Law Review, https://doi.org/10.15742/ilrev.v10n2.652, 217, 217–37; Adongoi Toakodi, et al “Sea Robbery and Its Implications on Tourism Development in Niger Delta Region of Nigeria” (2018) 5(4) Journal of Education & Entrepreneurship 43, 43–55.

  22. See Kalu Kingsley Anele “Comparative Analysis of the Impact of Piracy on International Trade in Korea, Indonesia and Nigeria” (2022b) Asia Pacific Law Review, https://doi.org/10.1080/10192557.2022.2117476, 1, 1–21. See also Farah Robleh Hamza & Jean-Philippe Priotti “Maritime Trade and Piracy in the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean (1994–2017)” (2018) J Transp Secur, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12198-018-0190-4.

  23. Anele ibid.

  24. See art. 101 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (LOSC), adopted 10 December 1982, (entered into force 16th November 1994) 1833 UNTS 3.

  25. See art. 3 of the Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation, adopted 10 March 1988, (entered into force 1 March 1992) 1678 UNTS 221, (SUA Convention)

  26. See s. 371, Part XVI of the Merchant Shipping Act (MSA) No. 4 of 2009.

  27. Bob M. Kao “Against a Uniform Definition of Maritime Piracy” (2016) 3 Maritime Safety and Security Law Journal 1, 1. For a detailed information on the importance of the definition of piracy in the prosecution of pirates and the suppression of piracy, see Kalu Kingsley Anele “A Panoramic Definition of Piracy under the SPOMO Act: Matters Arising” Afronomics Law

    <https://www.afronomicslaw.org/category/analysis/panoramic-definition-piracy-under-spomo-act-matters-arising> accessed 26 May 2023.

  28. See Mazyar Ahmad “Maritime Piracy Operations: Some Legal Issues” (2020) 4(3) Journal of International Maritime Safety, Environment Affairs, and Shipping, https://doi.org/10.1080/25725084.2020.1788200, 62, 62–4; Douglas Guifoyle & Rob McLaughlin “The Crime of Piracy” in Charles C. Jalloh, Kamari M. Clarke & Vincent O. Nmehielle The African Court of Justice and Peoples’ Rights in Context: Development and Challenges (Cambridge University Press 2019) 389–92.

  29. See Douglas Guifoyle “Policy Tensions and the Legal Regime Governing Piracy” in Douglas Guilfoyle (ed.), Modern Piracy: Legal Challenges and responses (Edward Elgar Publishing 2013) 328.

  30. See art. 105 of the LOSC.

  31. It can be argued that a strict interpretation of the LOSC, in article 105, permits the prosecution of pirates under the universal jurisdiction principle. See generally Anele “Harvest of Arrest but no Prosecution” (n 5) at 620–4.

  32. Kalu Kingsley Anele “Addressing the Issue of Piracy off Indonesia and Nigeria: The Need for a Paradigm Change” (2020b) VII Indonesia Journal of International & Comparative Law 245, 259; Osatohanmwen A. Eruaga & Maximo Q. Mejia Jr. “Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships: Revisiting International Law Definitions and Requirements in the Context of the Gulf of Guinea” (2019) 33 Ocean Yearbook 435, 435–41; Ilja V. Hespen “Developing the Concept of Maritime Piracy: A Comparative Legal Analysis of International Law and Domestic Criminal Legislation” (2016) 31 Int’l J. of Mar. & Coast. L., https://doi.org/10.1163/15718085-12341395, 279, 287–8.

  33. Michal Wallner & Artur Kokoszkiewicz “Maritime Piracy and Limitations of the International Law of the Sea” (2019) 28(35) Historia i Polityka 25, 29.

  34. Y. Gottlieb “International Cooperation in Combating Modern Forms of Maritime Piracy: Legal and Policy Dimensions” University of Amsterdam UvA-DARE (Digital Academic Repository) 2017, 38–55.

  35. Ilan Fuchs “Piracy in the 21st Century: A Proposed Model of International Governance” (2020) 51(1) Journal of Maritime Law & Commerce 1, 4.

  36. Kalu Kingsley Anele “Repressing Piracy off the Nigerian Waters: Lessons from Korea” (2021b) MarSafeLaw Journal 8, 8–28.

  37. Hespen (n 32) at 288.

  38. Waseem Ahmed Qureshi “The Prosecution of Pirates and the Enforcement of Counter-Piracy Laws are Virtually Incapacitated by Law itself” (2017) 19(1) San Diego International Law Journal 95, 108.

  39. ibid.

  40. Patricia Schneider “When Protest goes to Sea: Theorizing Maritime Violence by Applying Social Movement Theory to Terrorism and Piracy in the Cases of Nigeria and Somalia” (2020) Ocean Development & International Law, https://doi.org/10.1080/00908320.2020.1781383, 1, 2.

  41. Ginger L. Denton & Jonathan R. Harris “The Impact of Illegal Fishing on Maritime Piracy: Evidence from West Africa” (2019a) Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2019.1594660, 1, 3.

  42. Ahmad (n 28).

  43. Kao (n 27) at 3.

  44. See s. 5(2) of the SPOMO Act.

  45. S. 5(1) of the SPOMO Act.

  46. See s. 7 of the SPOMO Act.

  47. Compare and contrast the provisions of s. 7 of the SPOMO Act and art. 105 of the LOSC.

  48. Adeogun-Phillips (n 18).

  49. Yurika Ishi “M/V Guanabara: Japan’s First Trial on Piracy under the Anti-Piracy Act” (2016) 1 MarSafeLaw Journal 45, 49.

  50. Jing Jin & Erika Techera “Strengthening Universal Jurisdiction for Maritime Piracy Trials to Enhance a Sustainable Anti-piracy Legal System for Community Interests” (2021) 13 Sustainable, https://doi.org/10.3390/su13137268, 1, 3.

  51. Katja Lindskov Jacobsen & Jessica Larsen “Piracy Studies Coming of Age: A Window on the Making of Maritime Intervention Actors” (2019) 95(5) International Affairs, https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiz009, 1037, 1045.

  52. Keyuan Zou & Jing Jin “The Question of Pirate Trials in States without a Crime of Piracy” (2020)19 Chinese Journal of International Law, https://doi.org/10.1093/chinesejil/jmaa040, 591, 591.

  53. Jin & Techera (n 50) at 5.

  54. Jacobsen & Larsen (n 51).

  55. Zou & Jin (n 52) at 593.

  56. Milena Sterio “Piracy off the Coast of Somalia” (2012) 42 Amsterdam Law Forum 104, 110–11.

  57. Robin M. Warner “The Prosecution of Pirates in National Courts” The Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, Emirates Lecture Series 109 Abu Dhabi 2013 <https://ro.uow.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2058&context=lhapapers> accessed 26 November 2022.

  58. Anele “Harvest of Arrests but No Prosecution” (n 5) at 622.

  59. See s. 1 (4) (iv) of the Armed Forces Act, Cap No A20, Law of the Federation of Nigeria 2004.

  60. S. 22 of the NIMASA Act 2007.

  61. For more reading on the challenges linked to the use of “relevant authority” without specifying any regulatory or security agency, see generally, Omeiza Alao “Combatting the Threat of Piracy in the Nigerian Maritime Industry: The Pith and Potentials of the Suppression of Piracy and Other Maritime Offences Act 2019” (2021) 4(2) UNILAG Law Review 203, 213; Ogbonna (n 6); “Article: Tackling Piracy in Nigeria” Standard Club (London, 28 August 2020) <https://www.standard-club.com/knowledge-news/article-tackling-piracy-in-nigeria-1505/> accessed 22 November 2022.

  62. Ogbonna ibid.

  63. ibid.

  64. Katja Lindskov Jacobsen “Pirates of the Niger Delta: Between Blue and Brown Water” United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) 2019–2021, 77–9.

  65. Alao (n 61) at 214.

  66. ibid.

  67. S. 19 (4) the SPOMO Act.

  68. ibid.

  69. See Anele “Repressing Piracy off the Nigerian Waters: Lessons from Korea” (n 36); Anele “Addressing the Issue of Piracy off Indonesia and Nigeria” (n 32) at 262–3.

  70. See Jade Lindley “Criminal Threats Undermining Indo-Pacific Maritime Security: Can International Law Build Resilience?” (2020) Journal of Asian Economic Integration, https://doi.org/10.1177/2631684620940477, 1, 4–7; Ishi (n 49) at 55. Bailey suggests that under the universal jurisdiction principle, regional countries can prosecute pirates, even if those countries lack “a connection to the crime.” Christopher E. Bailey “Piracy Prosecution in Kenya Courts” (2020) 37(1) Arizona Journal of International & Comparative Law 1, 2.

  71. See generally, Curt Bell “Pirates of the Gulf of Guinea: A Cost Analysis for Coastal States” Stable Seas Report, November 2021, 1–66; Christina Barla & Nitin Agarwala “Comparing Maritime Piracy along the Coasts of Africa: In Search of a Solution for the Gulf of Guinea” (2020) Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India, https://doi.org/10.1080/09733159.2020.1836774, 1, 6–7.

  72. See Adaku Onyenucheya ‘‘AU Laments Sea Blindness, Lack of Maritime Law in Coastal Countries’’ (24 May 2023) The Guardian <https://guardian.ng/business-services/au-laments- sea-blindness-lack-of-maritime-law-in-coastal-countries/> 23 June 2023 and Niranjan Jose “Understanding the Dynamics of Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea” Young Diplomats Society (24 November 2022)

    https://www.theyoungdiplomats.com/post/understanding-the-dynamics-of-piracy-in-the-gulf-of-guinea. Accessed 30 April 2023.

  73. See Binaebi Johnson & Co (n 2). However, in the case of Federal Republic of Nigeria v Frank Insort Abaka & 9 ors (n 2), Hon. Justice Ayokunle Faji sentenced the pirates to 12 years imprisonment each and a cumulative fine of ₦1million each. See Donald Ibebuike & Callistus Ojukwu "Nigeria: Piracy in the Gulf of Guinea: Is the Trend Changing" Mondaq (London, 22 September 2022) <https://www.mondaq.com/nigeria/marine-shipping/1225138/piracy-in-the-gulf-of-guinea-is-the-trend-changing> accessed 22 June 2023.

  74. Godwin Oritse “Nigeria Needs Private Security on Vessels to Tackle Piracy-Report” Vanguard (Lagos, 26 February 2021)

    <https://www.vanguardngr.com/2021/02/nigeria-needs-private-security-on-vessels-to-tackle-piracy-report/> accessed 22 November 2022.

  75. Jacobsen (n 64) at 73–75/77.

  76. ibid.

  77. Zou & Jin (n 52) at 606.

  78. In Indonesia, the punishment ranges from 10 to 15 years, depending on the nature of the crime. See Anele “Comparative Analysis of the Impact of Piracy on International Trade in Korea, Indonesia and Nigeria” (n 22) at 12–13. The courts in Indonesia have also imposed punishments far lower than the minimum sentence under the statute. See generally, Adam James Fenton & Ioannis Chapsos “Prosecuting Pirates: Maritime Piracy and Indonesian Law” (2019) 19(2) Australian Journal of Asian Law 1, 1–16. See also Bailey (n 70) at 14–15; Zou & Jin (n 52) at 606.

  79. See Seokwoo Lee (ed) Encyclopedia of Ocean Law and Policy in Asia-Pacific (Brill 2023) 210–211; Ishi (n 49) at 54; Seokwoo Lee & Young Park “Republic of Korea v Araye” (2012) 106(3) American Journal of International Law 630, 632.

  80. Zou & Jin (n 52) at 606.

  81. See Kalu Kingsley Anele “Theoretical Analysis of the Linkages between the IOCs’ Oil Exploration Activities and Piracy in Nigeria” (2022a) Security Journal, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-022-00361-2.

  82. ibid. See also Jacobsen (n 64) at 63–71.

  83. Qureshi (n 38) at 126.

  84. See generally, s. 22 of NIMASA Act.

  85. Oritse (n 74).

  86. Fuchs (n 35) 8.

  87. See “Pirates Abduct Six Julius Berger Workers in Nigeria, Demands N600 million” (n 3).

  88. Kalu Kingsley Anele “Reimagining Regional Cooperation as a Springboard for Curbing Piracy off the Coast of Nigeria” (2022c) 9(2) Journal of Comparative Law in Africa 33, 56.

  89. S. 17(4)(f) of the SPOMO Act.

  90. William Clowes “Drones, Choppers to Police Pirate-infested Waters off Nigeria” Bloomberg (New York, 22 February 2021) <https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-02-22/drones-choppers-to-police-pirate-infested-waters-off-nigeria> accessed 22 November 2022.

  91. Corrupt activities by the elite, government officials and maritime officers stall the effective use of the project to curb piracy in Nigeria. See “Obasanjo Spent between €300m and €400m to Buy Maritime Equipment but they have Disappeared – Amaechi” Nigeriana News, (Nigeria, 12 June 2021) <https://nigeriana.news/obasanjo-spent-between-e300m-and-e400m-to-buy-maritime-equipment-but-they-have-disappeared-amaechi.html> accessed 22 November 2022.

  92. The italicised words added by this author.

  93. Fuchs (n 35) at 15.

  94. For more information about the fundamental rights of pirates, see ss. 33–34 and 36, Part IV of the 1999 Constitution of Nigeria.

  95. Osogo Ambani “Prosecuting Piracy in the Horn of Africa: The Case of Kenya” in Chacha Murungu & Japhet Biegon (eds.) Prosecuting International Crimes in Africa (Pretoria University Law Press 2011) 244.

  96. The NCSA, which empowers administrators to provide correctional services (custodial and non-custodial services) to inmates, repeals the Nigerian Prisons Act CAP, P29 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria (LFN) 2004.

  97. See generally the AJCA 2015 Nigeria.

  98. See the excerpt of the comments of Professor Fabian Ajogwu during an interview conducted by John A. Unachukwu, Legal Editor, Punch Newspaper (Lagos, 15 May 2018)

    <https://thenationonlineng.net/remove-procedural-bottlenecks-to-boost-justice-delivery/> accessed 22 November 2022.

  99. See Binaebi Johnson (n 2).

  100. See ss. 81 (3), 121 (3) and 162 (3) of the 1999 Constitution of Nigeria.

  101. L.O. Taiwo & M.A. Lateef “National Judicial Council: An Albatross against the Independence of the Judiciary in Nigeria” (2021) 3(2) IRLJ 197, 204.

  102. For analysis of the JUSUN strike action, see Ope Adetayo “Nigeria’s Court Strike Paralyses Underfunded Justice System” The Guardian (Lagos, 26 May 2021) <https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2021/may/26/nigerias-court-strike-paralyses-underfunded-justice-system> accessed 22 November 2022.

  103. Oritse (n 74).

  104. ibid.

  105. Christian Bueger “Learning from Piracy: Future Challenges of Maritime Security Governance” (2015) 1 Global Affairs 33, 40.

  106. Adeogun-Phillips (n 18).

  107. See Justin V. Hastings “The Return of Sophisticated Maritime Piracy to Southeast Asia” (2020) 93(1) Pacific Affairs, https://doi.org/10.5509/20209315, 5, 5–29.

  108. Christian Bueger “Performing Piracy: A Note on the Multiplicity of Agency” (2019) 22 J Int Relat Dev, https://doi.org/10.1057/s41268-017-0122-0, 832, 844.

  109. Schneider (n 40) at 16–7.

  110. Ginger L. Denton & Jonathan R. Harris, “Maritime Piracy, Military Capacity, and Institutions in the Gulf of Guinea” (2019b) Terrorism and Political Violence, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1659783, 1, 2.

  111. ibid.

  112. Hastings (n 107) at 12. See also Zou & Jin (n 52) at 622.

  113. See the case of Rear Admiral Francis Echie Agbiti v The Nigerian Navy (2007) LPELR-CA/L/361/2005, (2011) 4NWLR 175. For a detailed analysis of the case, see Obugheni W. Arugu & Chidi E. Halliday “Strengthening the Legal and Institutional Framework for Combating Piracy and Armed Robbery against Ships in Nigeria” 2018, 80 <https://www.academia.edu/39993652/STRENGTHENING_THE_LEGAL_AND_INSTITUTIONAL_FRAMEWORK_FOR_COMBATING_PIRACY_AND_ARMED_ROBERY_AGAINST_SHIPS_IN_NIGERIA> accessed 22 November 2022.

  114. Zou & Jin (n 52) at 622. See also Ogbonna (n 6); “Article: Tackling Piracy in Nigeria” (n 61). Denton and Harris suggest that corrupt government and military officials, in many cases, are complacent to the current activities of pirates in the Gulf of Guinea, especially in the waters of Nigeria. See Denton & Harris “Maritime Piracy, Military Capacity” (n 110) at 21. See the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC) (Establishment, etc.) Act, 2004; Independent Corrupt Practices and other Related Offences Commission (ICPC) Act No.5 Laws of the Federation of Nigeria 2004.

  115. The absence of good governance and vibrant economic policies has culminated in loss of jobs, economic hardship and unemployment in the country, particularly in the Niger Delta area. These are some of the root causes of piracy in Nigeria. See Hastings (n 107); Dirk Siebels Maritime Security in East and West Africa. A Tale of Two Regions (Palgrave MacMillan 2019) 109. For further reading on the land-based nature of piracy in Nigeria, see Anele “Harvest of Arrest but no Prosecution” (n 5) at 618–9. See also Volodymyr Kyrychenko ““Piracy is a Land-based Crime”: Analysis of Definition, Drivers and Government Policy” (2018) 2(1) Journal of Maritime Studies and National Integrations 45, 45–57.

  116. Jacobsen (n 64) at 11–88.

  117. This ministry was established to ameliorate the consequences of oil exploration on the region and persuade the youths of the region to avoid engaging in criminal activities, like piracy.

  118. See Nwalozie (n 5).

  119. ibid.

  120. Chidozie Ezeozue “Piratical Challenges in the Nigerian Ocean Space: Implication for National Security” (2019) IV(X) International Journal of Research and Innovation in Applied Science 57, 59.

  121. Schneider (n 40) at 1.

  122. Christian Bueger & Timothy Edmunds “Blue Crime: Conceptualising Transnational Organised Crime at Sea” (2020) 119 Marine Policy, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2020.104067, 1, 5.

  123. Tom Syring “Candide, or Pessimism: Fighting Piracy and International Crime in Uncharted Waters” in Yuliya Zabyelina (ed.), Transnational Crime: Essays on Global manifestations of Contemporary Delinquency (Vol. 2(1) Inter Disciplinary Political Studies, 2012) 48.

  124. See Money Laundering (Prevention and Prohibition) Act, 2022 (Money Laundering Act). See also Zou & Jin (n 52) at 622.

  125. See the EFCC Act 2004. See also Zou & Jin (n 52) at 622.

  126. See Terrorism (Prevention) (Amendment) Act, 2013 (Terrorism Act). See also Zou & Jin ibid.

  127. Abhijit Singh “Maritime Terrorism in Asia: An Assessment” ORF Occasional Paper No. 215, October 2019, Observation Research Foundation, 12. Evidence suggests that piracy and terrorism are connected as the payment of ransom raises issues of possible promotion of terrorism and other criminal activities. Bailey (n 70) at 3.

  128. James Pattison “Justa Piratica: The Ethics of Piracy” (2013) Review of International Studies, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210513000405, 1, 4.

  129. Singh (n 127).

  130. ibid at 13.

  131. While Boko Haram operates mainly in the northern part of Nigeria, pirates operate in the southern part of the country. Additionally, Boko Haram jihadists and fundamentalists are Moslems and pirates are, perhaps, predominantly Christians. See “Nigeria 2018 International Religious Freedom Report” International Religious Freedom Report for 2018, United States Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 3 <https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/NIGERIA-2018-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf> accessed 22 November 2022.

  132. Zou & Jin (n 52) at 622.

  133. Eruaga & Mejia Jr. (n 32) at 448.

  134. Republic of Korea v Araye No. 2011 Do 12927, Supreme Court of Republic of Korea, December 22, 2011; Lee (n 79) at 211–2; Lee & Park (n 79) at 632–3; Zou & Jin (n 52) at 620.

  135. Ase G. Ostensen, et al “Capacity Building for the Nigerian Navy: Eyes Wide Shut on Corruption” U4 Anti-Corruption Resource Centre, U4 Issue 2018:4, CMI, 31–3.

  136. See “The Gulf of Guinea Declaration on Suppression of Piracy” <https://www.bimco.org/GoGDeclaration> accessed 22 November 2022.

  137. ibid.

  138. ibid

  139. See Carrington O. Omokaro “The Justice System of Nigeria in this Era (Commendable Steps and Shortcomings)” The Nigeria Lawyers (13 May 2021)

    <https://thenigerialawyer.com/the-justice-system-of-nigeria-in-this-era-commendable-steps-and-shortcomings/> accessed 22 November 2022.

  140. ibid.

  141. An admiralty court traditionally adjudicates private disputes involving maritime activities, not criminal cases.

  142. Adeogun-Phillips (n 18).

  143. William S. Ferguson “Judicial Financial Autonomy and Inherent Power” (1972) 57(3) Cornell L. Rev. 975, 975.

  144. ibid.

  145. To enhance financial autonomy of the judiciary at the State level, the President of Nigeria, on the 20th of May 2020, signed the Presidential Executive Order No 10 of 2020: Implementation of Financial Autonomy of State Legislature and State Judiciary, pursuant to section 5 of the 1999 Constitution of Nigeria.

  146. See Nwalozie (n 5); Adeogun-Phillips (n 18); Hasting (n 107) 12.

  147. Ruby Hassan “Nigeria: Guidance on Contracting Government Security Forces” SKULD (London, 9 March 2021) <https://www.skuld.com/topics/port/piracy/nigeria-guidance-on-contracting-government-security-forces/> accessed 22 November 2022.

  148. It has been suggested that the use of APSP on board vessels has a short-term benefit in curbing piracy. See Ladan Affi, et al “Countering Piracy through Private Security in the Horn of Africa: Prospects and Pitfalls” (2016) Third World Quarterly, https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2015.1114882, 1, 11.

  149. Anele “Harvest of Arrest but no Prosecution” (n 5) at 631, quoting Katija L. Jacobson & Johannes R. Nordby.

  150. Jonathan Bellish “The Systemic Prosecution of Somali Pirate Leadership and the Primacy of Multi-level Cooperation” June 2014, 39

    <https://www.skuld.com/topics/port/piracy/nigeria-guidance-on-contracting-government-security-forces/> accessed 22 November 2022.

  151. The italicised word added by this author.

  152. The italicised word added by this author.

  153. Bellish (n 150).

  154. Ali & Benning (n 13) 18.

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Anele, K.K. Analysis of the Enforcement of the Suppression of Piracy and Other Maritime Offences Act in Nigeria: Matters Arising. Crim Law Forum 34, 375–419 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10609-023-09462-y

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