Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Improving Consistency for DIT Results Using Cluster Analysis

  • Published:
Journal of Business Ethics Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

In this article, cluster analysis is used to explore the conflicting results reported when the Defining Issues Test is used to explain moral reasoning ability in business situations. Using a convenience sample, gender, age, work experience, and ethics training were examined to determine their impact on the level of moral reasoning ability as measured by the Defining Issues Test. Using the whole sample, a significant difference was found for average P scores reported for males and females, but no significant differences were found based on age, work experience, and ethics training. However, the sample fell into distinct clusters that identified distinct male and female groupings. While females naturally fell into two distinct high- and low-moral reasoning ability clusters, male clusters were dominated more by work experience and ethics training. Clearly there are other factors mitigating the level of moral reasoning ability for males which require further exploration. The findings suggest that while the P score provides an initial point of comparison, the real benefit to the test is in exploring what is different for males and females in terms of training needs, and the impact of work experience on the moral reasoning ability, and most importantly, how to make ethics training enticing. Recommendations for future research are also discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Abdolmohammadi M., W. J. Read, D. P. Scarbrough 2003, Does Selection-Socialization Help to Explain Accountants’ Weak Ethical Reasoning?. Journal of Business Ethics, 42(1), 71–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abdolmohammadi M., J. Sultan 2002, Ethical Reasoning and the Use of Insider Information in Stock Trading. Journal of Business Ethics 37, 165–173

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abdolmohammadi M., D. Gabhart, M. Reeves 1997, Ethical Cognition of Business Students Individually and in Groups. Journal of Business Ethics 16, 1717–1725

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Akaah I. 1989, Differences in Research Ethics Judgments Between Male and Female Marketing Professionals. Journal of Business Ethics 8, 375–381

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aldenderfer M., R. Blashfield 1984, Cluster Analysis. Sage Publications, Newberry Park

    Google Scholar 

  • Allen W., P. Bacdayan, K. Kowalski, R. Mathew 2005, Examining the Impact of Ethics Training on Business Student Values. Education and Training 47(3), 170–182

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Archer S. L., A. S. Waterman 1988, Psychological Individualism: Gender Differences or Gender Neutrality? Human Development, 31, 65–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arlow P. 1991, Personal Characteristics in College Students’ Evaluations of Business Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility. Journal of Business Ethics 10, 63–69

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong M. 1987, Moral Development and Accounting Education. Journal of Accounting Education 5, 27–43

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bay D. 2002, A Critical Evaluation of the Use of the DIT in Accounting Ethics Research. Critical Perspectives in Accounting 12, 159–177

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bay D., R. Greenburg 2001, The Relation of the DIT and Behavior: A Replication. Issues in Accounting Education 16, 367–380

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bebeau M. J., S. J. Thoma 1994, The Impact of a Dental Ethics Curriculum on Moral Reasoning. Journal of Dental Education 58(9), 684–692

    Google Scholar 

  • Bernardi R. A, R. L. Metzger, R. G. S. Bruno, M. A. W. Hoogkamp, L. E. Reyes, G. H. Barnaby 2004, Examining the Decision Process of Students’ Cheating Behavior: An Empirical Study. Journal of Business Ethics, 50(4), 397–414

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bigel K. 2000, The Ethical Orientation of Financial Planners Who are Engaged in Investment Activities: A Comparison of United States Practitioners Based on Professionalization and Compensation Sources. Journal of Business Ethics 28, 323–337

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Castleberry S., W. French, B. Carlin 1993, The Ethical Framework of Advertising and Marketing Research Practitioners: A Moral Development Perspective. Journal of Advertising 22(2), 39–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke P., N. Hill, K. Stevens 1996, Ethical Reasoning Abilities: Accountancy Practitioners in Ireland. Ibar 17, 94–109

    Google Scholar 

  • Cohen J. 1988, Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Colby A., L. Kohlberg 1987, The Measurement of Moral Judgment: Theoretical Foundations and Research Validations and Standard Issue Scoring Manual, Vols, 1 and 2. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawson L. 1997, Ethical Differences Between Men and Women in the Sales Profession. Journal of Business Ethics 16, 1143–1152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dellaportas S. 2006, Making a Difference with a Discrete Course on Accounting Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 65(4), 391–404

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Deshpande S. 1997, Managers’ Perception of Proper Ethical Conduct: The Effect of Sex, Age, and Level of Education. Journal of Business Ethics 16, 79–85

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Earley C., P. Kelly 2004, A Note on Ethics Educational Interventions in an Undergraduate Auditing Course: Is There an “Enron Effect”?. Issues in Accounting Education 19(1), 53–71

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eaton T., D. Giacomino 2001, An Examination of Personal Values: Differences Between Accounting Students and Managers and Differences Between Genders. Teaching Business Ethics 5(2), 213–229

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elm D., M. Nichols 1993, An Investigation of the Moral Reasoning of Managers. Journal of Business Ethics 12, 817–833

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Eynon G., N. Hill, K. Stevens 1997, Factors that Influence the Moral Reasoning Abilities of Accountants: Implications for Universities and the Profession. Journal of Business Ethics 16, 1297–1309

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ford R., W. Richardson 1994, Ethical Decision Making: A Review of the Empirical Literature. Journal of Business Ethics 13, 205–221

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forte A. 2004, Business Ethics: A Study of the Moral Reasoning of Selected Business Managers and the Influence of Organizational Ethical Climate. Journal of Business Ethics 51, 167–173

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Forte A. 2005, Locus of Control and the Moral Reasoning of Managers. Journal of Business Ethics 58(1/3), 65–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fraedrich J., D. Thorne, O. Ferrell 1994, Assessing the Application of Cognitive Moral Development Theory to Business Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics 13, 829–838

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gibbs J., K. Widaman 1982, Social Intelligence: Measuring the Development of Sociomoral Reflection. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs

    Google Scholar 

  • Gilligan C. 1982, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA

    Google Scholar 

  • Goolsby J., S. Hunt 1992, Cognitive Moral Development and Marketing. Journal of Marketing 56(1), 55–68

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Grunbaum L. 1997, Attitudes of Future Managers towards Business Ethics: A Comparison of Finnish and American Business Students. Journal of Business Ethics 16, 451–463

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hair J., R. Anderson, R. Tatham, W. Black 1995, Multivariate Data Analysis. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Ho F., S. Vitell, J. Barnes, R. Desborde 1997, Ethical Correlates of Role Conflict and Role Ambiguity in Marketing: The Mediating Role of Cognitive Moral Development. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 25, 117–126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt S., S. Vitell 1986, A General Theory of Marketing Ethics. Journal of Macromarketing 48, 5–16

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hunt T., D. Jennings 1997, Ethics and Performance: A Simulation Analysis of Team Decision Making. Journal of Business Ethics 16, 229–239

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Izzo G. 2000, Compulsory Ethics Education and the Cognitive Moral Development of Salespeople: A Quasi-Experimental Assessment. Journal of Business Ethics 28, 223–241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kaynama S., A. King, L. Smith 1996, The Impact of a Shift in Organizational Role on Ethical Perceptions: A Comparative Study. Journal of Business Ethics 15, 581–590

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King P., M. Mayhew 2002, Moral Judgment Development in Higher Education: Insights From the Defining Issues Test, Journal of Moral Education 31(3), 247–270

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg L. 1969, Stage and Sequence: The Cognitive-Development Approach to Socialization Theory and Practice. Rand McNally, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg L. 1976, Moralization: The Cognitive-Development Approach In T. Likona (eds.), Morality: Theory, Research and Social Issues. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Kohlberg L. 1984, Essays in Moral Development, (Volume 1): The Philosophy of Moral Development. Harper and Row, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Marnburg E. 2001 The Questionable Use of Moral Development Theory in Studies of Business Ethics: Discussion and Empirical Findings. Journal of Business Ethics 32, 275–283

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mason E., P. Mudrack 1997, Do Complex Moral Reasoners Experience Greater Ethical Work Conflict? Journal of Business Ethics 16, 1131–1318

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald G. 2004, A Case Example: Integrating Ethics into the Academic Business Curriculum. Journal of Business Ethics 54, 371–384

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McDonald G., P. Pak 1996, It is all Fair in Love, War and Business: Cognitive Philosophies in Ethical Decision-Making. Journal of Business Ethics 15, 973–996

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mudrack P. 2003, The Untapped Relevance of Moral Development Theory in the Study of Business Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics 42, 225–236

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • O’Fallon M., K. Butterfield 2005, A Review of the Empirical Ethical Decision-Making Literature: 1996–2003, Journal of Business Ethics 59, 375–413

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Narvaez D., T. Bock 2002, Moral Schemas and Tacit Judgment or How the Defining Issues Test is Supported by Cognitive Science. Journal of Moral Education 31(3), 297–314

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Paradice D., R. Dejoi 1991, The Ethical Decision-Making Processes of Information Systems Workers. Journal of Business Ethics 10, 1–21

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pasupathi M., U. M. Staudinger 2001, Do Advance Moral Reasoners also Show Wisdom? Linking Moral Reasoning and Wisdom-Related Knowledge and Judgement. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 25(5), 401–415

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piaget J. 1965, The Moral Judgment of a Child. The Free Press, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Ponemon L.A. 1990, Ethical Judgement in Accounting: A Cognitive Development Perspective. Critical Perspectives in Accounting 1, 191–215

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ponemon L. 1992, Ethical Reasoning and Selection-Socialization in Accounting. Accounting Organization and Society 17(3–4), 239–258

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ponemon L. 1993, Can Ethics be Taught in Accounting?. Journal of Accounting Education 11, 185–209

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rau S. E., J. Weber 2003, Can the Repeated Prisoners’ Dilemma Game be Used as a Tool to Enhance Moral Reasoning?. Teaching Business Ethics, 7(4), 395–416

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reall M., J. Bailey, S. Stoll 1998, Moral Reasoning “On Hold” During a Competitive Game. Journal of Business Ethics 17, 1205–1210

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rest J. 1979, Development in Judging Moral Issues. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis

    Google Scholar 

  • Rest J. 1983, Morality In P. Musson (eds.), Manual of Child Psychology (Vol. III), Cognitive Development. Wiley, New York, 556–629

    Google Scholar 

  • Rest J. 1986a, Moral Development: Advances in Research and Theory. Praeger, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Rest J. 1986b, DIT Manual for Defining Issues Test, 3rd ed. University of Minnesota Center for the Study of Ethical Development, Minneapolis

    Google Scholar 

  • Rest, J.: 1993, Guide to Using the DIT, Version 1.3. (Center for the study of Ethical Development, University of Minnesota)

  • Rest J., D. Narvaéz 1994, Moral Development in the Professions: Psychology and Applied Ethics. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, N.J

    Google Scholar 

  • Rest J., D. Narveaz, M. Bebeau, S. Thoma 1999, Postconventional Moral Thinking; A neo-Kohlbergian Approach. Erlbaum, Mahwash, NJ

    Google Scholar 

  • Robertson D., T. Rymon 2001, Purchasing Agents’ Deceptive Behavior: A Randomized Response Technique Study. Business Ethics Quarterly 11(3), 455–479

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ruegger D., E. King 1992, A Study of the Effect of Age and Gender Upon Students Business Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics 11, 179–186

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ryan J. J. 2001, Moral Reasoning as a Determinant of Organizational Citizenship Behaviours: A Study in the Public Accounting Profession. Journal of Business Ethics, 33(3), 233–244

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaub M. K. 1994, An Analysis of the Association of the Tradition Demographic Variables with the Moral Reasoning of Auditing Students and Auditors. Journal of Accounting Education 12, 1–26

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schlaefli A., J. Rest, S. Thoma 1985, Does Moral Education Improve Moral Judgment? A Meta-Analysis of Intervention Studies Using the Defining Issues Test. Review of Educational Research 55(3), 319–352

    Google Scholar 

  • Self D. J., D. C. Baldwin Jr. 1998, Does Medical Education Inhibit the Development of Moral Reasoning in Medical Students? A Cross-Sectional Study. Academic Medicine 73, s91–s93

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Self D. J., M. Olivarez, D. C. Baldwin Jr. 1998, Clarifying the Relationship of Medical Education and Moral Development. Academic Medicine, 73, 517–520

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Skoe E. E., A. L. von der Lippe 2002, Ego Development and the Ethic of Care and Justice: The Relations Among them Revisited, Journal of Personality, 70(4), 485–508

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solberg J., Strong K. C., C. McGuire Jr. 1995, Living (not learning) Ethics. Journal of Business Ethics, 14(1), 71–81

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thoma S. J. 1986, Estimating Gender Differences in the Comprehension and Preference of Moral Issues. Developmental Review, 6, 165–180

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thorne L., D. W. Massey, M. Magnan 2003, Institutional Context and Auditor’s Moral Reasoning: A Canada-US Comparison, Journal of Business Ethics, 43(4), 305–321

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trevino L. 1986, Ethical Decision Making in Organizations: A Person-Situation Interactionist Model, The Academy of Management Review 11(3), 601–617

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trevino L. 1992, Moral Reasoning and Business Ethics: Implications for Research, Education and Management. Journal of Business Ethics 11, 445–459

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Walker L. J. 1984, Sex Differences in the Development of Moral Reasoning: A Critical Review. Child Development, 55(3), 677–691

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wimalasiri J. 2004, Contrasts in Moral Reasoning Capacity: The Fijians and the Singaporeans. Journal of Business Ethics 49, 253–272

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • White R. 1999, Are Women More Ethical? Recent Findings on the Effects of Gender Upon Moral Development. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 9(3), 459–471

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Marketing, Griffith Business School, Griffith University, PMB 50 Gold Coast Mail Centre, Gold Coast, QLD, 9726, Australia

    Carmel Herington & Scott Weaven

Authors
  1. Carmel Herington
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Scott Weaven
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Carmel Herington.

Additional information

Carmel Herington is a senior lecturer in the Department of Marketing, Griffith University Gold Coast Campus, Australia. Her research interests include service quality and the provision of service quality through relationship building, internal relationships and their impact on other relationships of the firm, ethical business practices and marketing education. She has published in Qualitative Market Research, European Business Review, Academy of Marketing Science Review, Journal of Travel Research, Journal of Marketing Education, amongst others.

Scott Weaven is a lecturer in the Department of Marketing, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Australia. His research interests include service quality in asymmetric exchange relationships, motivational incentives analysis and business model choice, gender issues in small business management and marketing education. He has published in such scholarly journals as the International Small Business Journal, Journal of Marketing Channels, Academy of Marketing Science Review, and Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Herington, C., Weaven, S. Improving Consistency for DIT Results Using Cluster Analysis. J Bus Ethics 80, 499–514 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-007-9451-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-007-9451-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation