Abstract
Flamingos (Phoenicopteridae) are a distinctive group of birds associated with wetlands, one of the habitats most threatened by human activities. The abstraction of water, mining, agricultural expansion, and rapid urbanization around wetland areas has direct and indirect effects that cause the deterioration of waterbodies, also impacting the species that depend on them for reproduction and survival. Due to their unique features and high popularity, flamingos can also be an important tool for conserving and protecting their wetland habitats, serving as flagship and umbrella species. Nevertheless, due to limited resources, conservation efforts should be prioritized to mitigate major threats and protect species that are more threatened, which necessitates understanding the pressures that most impact these species and their habitats. This systematic review of the literature aimed to search the available literature on flamingo conservation for information on the most common and intense threats and use the information gathered to indicate the conservation priority of the wetlands cited in the literature. The filtering and selection processes resulted in 349 different articles citing 698 different wetlands used by the six species of flamingos in the world. Among the most common threats described were human disturbance and biological resource use, although more drastic changes could be caused by threats such as mining, abstraction of surface and ground water, and pollution. The data showed that European and North American wetlands, many under some form of protection, are highly cited in the literature, while there is less published information available for South American and African wetlands. Our results also highlight the necessity to integrate scientific research, policies and the needs and aspirations of communities that live and depend on these wetlands into land use plans to reverse and mitigate major threats, recover impacted areas, and avoid further wetland habitat loss for flamingos.
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HCD and CJC conceived the paper. HCD collected the data, performed the statistical analysis, and drafted the initial version. All authors engaged in discussions, shared ideas, and collaborated on subsequent drafts. The authors thank Dr. Felicity Arengo for the support and guidance during the last phase of this research.
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Funding
HCD is supported by a PhD fellowship from the Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), and CJC was supported by a Postdoctoral fellowship from the Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES). All data is available on the supplementary materials.
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HCD and CJC conceived the paper. HCD collected the data, performed the statistical analysis, and drafted the initial version. All authors engaged in discussions, shared ideas, and collaborated on subsequent drafts.
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10531_2024_2816_MOESM1_ESM.pdf
Supplementary file1 (PDF 119 KB)—Search terms used in the systematic review of literature in the Web of Science (Clarivate Analytics 2020) and Scopus (Elsevier 2020) platforms to filter the papers that compound the revision, searching the combinations of terms in the title and abstract of the papers
10531_2024_2816_MOESM2_ESM.xlsx
Supplementary file2 (XLSX 74 KB)—Table containing all the 349 papers that were analysed in this systematic review after the methodological process that eliminates duplicates and the articles that do not meet our inclusion and exclusion criteria. The table also shows the year of publication, the continent or subcontinent (NA = North America; CA = Central America; SA = South America; EU = Europe; AF = Africa; AS = Asia), the name of the wetlands cited, the type of threats reported (HD – human activities and disturbance; FW – biological resource use; UR – habitat loss due to residential and commercial development; AG – habitat loss due agricultural and farming expansion; AW – abstraction of surface and ground water; PO – pollution; IH – illegal hunting and animal traffic; EM – energy production and mining; CC – climate change and severe weather; CO – collision with service lines, wires, and wind turbines; O – others), and the species of flamingo studied
10531_2024_2816_MOESM3_ESM.xlsx
Supplementary file3 (XLSX 74 KB)—Table containing the name of wetlands, the continent, the total number of species of flamingo and the number of breeding flamingo species reported for each location, but also the total frequency and relative frequency of citation in the results of the systematic review of the literature. The table also presents the threats reported for each location with their specific threat scoring, the total threat scoring, the total species scoring, and the final conservation priority score (see data analysis). (HD – human activities and disturbance; FW – biological resource use; UR – habitat loss due to residential and commercial development; AG – habitat loss due agricultural and farming expansion; AW – abstraction of surface and ground water; PO – pollution; IH – illegal hunting and animal traffic; EM – energy production and mining; CC – climate change and severe weather; CO – collision with service lines, wires, and wind turbines; O – others)
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Delfino, H.C., Carlos, C.J. Still standing on one leg: a systematic review of threats, priorities, and conservation perspectives for flamingos (Phoenicopteridae). Biodivers Conserv 33, 1227–1268 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-024-02816-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-024-02816-x