Abstract
The Himalayas are a global hotspot for biodiversity and endemism, and yet the health of its natural ecosystems is deteriorating rapidly. Natural ecosystems across the Himalayas are threatened by diverse drivers, with each of them increasing the probability of extinction of endemic species and collapse of natural ecosystems. The key concern of this review is to endorse the urgent need to develop an agreed approach at national and regional level and support for the adoption of IUCN’s Red List of Ecosystems (RLE) at national, regional as well as biome level. With increasing population and diverse interests of stakeholders for subsistence, commercial and strategic needs, the threats are growing for the natural ecosystems. Deforestation and forest degradation rates are alarmingly high, with an exponential surge in unsustainable harvesting, developmental projects, urbanization, commercial tourism, pollution and climate change exerting more damage to natural ecosystems than expected. Countries in the region (Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, and Pakistan) with a recent exception of Nepal, are rapidly losing their natural forest cover, ecosystem structure and functions to monoculture agriculture and commercial plantations. Wild life trafficking and transboundary illegal trade as a mega-driver has degraded even the most sensitive and high value high altitude alpine grasslands and timberline ecosystems. This review takes stock of diverse drivers of loss and their significant impact on ecological and social concerns that are not localized and are experienced beyond Himalayas by transboundary areas and downstream communities across Asia. It highlights the potential of existing and emerging risks in the region that indicates towards the compromised health of many Himalayan ecosystems. For data driven evidence-based decision making the RLE approach have been included as the headline indicators of the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) for Goal A as well as in the UN System of Environmental Economic Accounting (SEEA). Hence, using RLE becomes a necessary and effective tool to support climate adaptations, conservation, conflict resolution and restoration planning efforts in the region. It is needed to help countries identify what strategic measures should be the priority to help halt, and reverse the collapse of Himalayan ecosystems.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Source Brandt et al. (2017)
Source Diksha (2017)
Source Various Sources
Source Various Sources
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abbasi A (2021) Trees worth millions reduced to ashes in K-P forest fire. In: The Express Tribune. http://tribune.com.pk/story/2278283/trees-worth-millions-reduced-to-ashes-in-k-p-forest-fire. Accessed 21 Jun 2021
Acharya KP, Paudel PK, Neupane PR, Köhl M (2016) Human-wildlife conflicts in Nepal: Patterns of human fatalities and injuries caused by large mammals. PLoS ONE 11:e0161717. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0161717
Adler C, Wester P, Bhatt I, Huggel C, Insarov GE, Morecroft MD, Muccione V, Prakash A (2022) Cross-chapter paper 5: mountains. In: Climate change 2022: impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. In: Pörtner H-O, Roberts DC, Tignor M, Poloczanska ES, Mintenbeck K, Alegría A, Craig M, Langsdorf S, Löschke S, Möller V, Okem A, Rama B (eds) Contribution of working group II to the sixth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 2273–2318. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009325844.022
Ahlers R, Budds J, Joshi D et al (2015) Framing hydropower as green energy: assessing drivers, risks and tensions in the Eastern Himalayas. Earth Syst Dyn 6:195–204. https://doi.org/10.5194/esd-6-195-2015
Ahmad D, Liu Q-J, Syed Moazzam N et al (2018) Carbon emission from deforestation, forest degradation and wood harvest in the temperate region of Hindukush Himalaya, Pakistan between 1994 and 2016. Land Use Policy 1:781–790. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.07
Ale SB, Yonzon P, Thapa K (2007) Recovery of snow leopard Uncia uncia in Sagarmatha (Mount Everest) National Park, Nepal. Oryx 41:89–92. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605307001585
Ali J, Benjaminsen TA (2004) Fuelwood, timber and deforestation in the Himalayas. Mred 24:312–318. https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2004)024[0312:FTADIT]2.0.CO;2
Anand S, Radhakrishna S (2017) Investigating trends in human-wildlife conflict: is conflict escalation real or imagined? J. Asia-Pac. Biodivers. 10:154–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2017.02.003
Areendran G, Sahana M, Raj K et al (2020) A systematic review on high conservation value assessment (HCVs): challenges and framework for future research on conservation strategy. Sci Total Environ 709:135425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135425
Aryal A, Brunton D, Raubenheimer D (2014) Impact of climate change on human-wildlife-ecosystem interactions in the Trans-Himalaya region of Nepal. Theor Appl Climatol 115:517–529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-013-0902-4
Atta-ur-Rahman KAN, Collins AE, Qazi F (2011) Causes and extent of environmental impacts of landslide hazard in the Himalayan region: a case study of Murree, Pakistan. Nat Hazards 57:413–434. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-010-9621-7
Awan MN, Yaqub A, Kamran M (2020) Survey of human-leopard (Panthera Pardus) conflict in Ayubia National park, Pakistan. Biodiversity. https://doi.org/10.35691/jbm.0202.0130
Badola HK, Aitken S (2003) The Himalayas of India: a treasury of medicinal plants under siege. Biodiversity 4:3–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2003.9712694
Baiping Z, Shenguo M, Ya T et al (2004) Urbanization and de-urbanization in mountain regions of China. Mred 24:206–209. https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2004)024[0206:UADIMR]2.0.CO;2
Baland J-M, Mookherjee D (2014) Deforestation in the Himalayas: myths and reality. Ideas For India. http://www.ideasforindia.in/topics/environment/deforestation-in-the-himalayas-myths-and-reality.html. Accessed 23 Oct 2020
Bandyopadhyay J, Gyawali D (1994) Himalayan water resources: ecological and political aspects of management. Mt Res Dev 14:1–24. https://doi.org/10.2307/3673735
Banerjee C (2021) 112 medicinal plants in Himalayas “threatened”, but conservation plans in place for just 5. India News Times of India
Banerjee A, Chakraborty P, Bandopadhyay R (2019) Urgent conservation needs in the Sikkim Himalaya biodiversity hotspot. Biodiversity 20:88–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2019.1656547
Baral N, Heinen JT (2005) The Maoist people’s war and conservation in Nepal. Politics Life Sci 24:2–11. https://doi.org/10.2990/1471-5457(2005)24[2:TMPWAC]2.0.CO;2
Basannagari B, Kala CP (2013) Climate change and apple farming in Indian Himalayas: a study of local perceptions and responses. PLoS ONE 8:e77976. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0077976
Bassi N, Kumar MD, Sharma A, Pardha-Saradhi P (2014) Status of wetlands in India: a review of extent, ecosystem benefits, threats and management strategies. J Hydrol Reg Stud 2:1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejrh.2014.07.001
Bawa KS, Seidler R (2015) Deforestation and sustainable mixed-use landscapes: a view from the Eastern Himalaya. MOBT 100:141–149. https://doi.org/10.3417/2012019
Bharti H, Bharti M, Pfeiffer M (2016) Ants as bioindicators of ecosystem health in Shivalik Mountains of Himalayas: assessment of species diversity and invasive species. Asian Myrmecol 8:1–15
Bhatt JP, Pandit MK (2016) Endangered Golden mahseer Tor putitora Hamilton: a review of natural history. Rev Fish Biol Fisheries 26:25–38. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11160-015-9409-7
Bhatta LD, van Oort BEH, Stork NE, Baral H (2015) Ecosystem services and livelihoods in a changing climate: understanding local adaptations in the Upper Koshi, Nepal. Int J Biodivers Sci Ecosyst Serv Manage 11(2):145–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/21513732.2015.1027793
Bhattarai KR, Måren IE, Subedi SC (2014) Biodiversity and invasibility: distribution patterns of invasive plant species in the Himalayas, Nepal. J Mt Sci 11:688–696. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-013-2821-3
Brandt JS, Kuemmerle T, Li H et al (2012) Using Landsat imagery to map forest change in southwest China in response to the national logging ban and ecotourism development. Remote Sens Environ 121:358–369. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2012.02.010
Brandt JS, Butsic V, Schwab B et al (2015) The relative effectiveness of protected areas, a logging ban, and sacred areas for old-growth forest protection in southwest China. Biol Conserv 181:1–8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.09.043
Brandt JS, Allendorf T, Radeloff V, Brooks J (2017) Effects of national forest-management regimes on unprotected forests of the Himalaya: management of Himalayan forests. Conserv Biol 31:1271–1282. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12927
Brandt JS, Radeloff V, Allendorf T et al (2019) Effects of ecotourism on forest loss in the Himalayan biodiversity hotspot based on counterfactual analyses. Conserv Biol 33:1318–1328. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13341
Brown K (1997) Environmental carrying capacity and tourism development in the Maldives and Nepal. Found Environ Conserv 24:316–324
Brunet S, Bauer J, Lacy TD, Tshering K (2001) Tourism development in Bhutan: tensions between tradition and modernity. J Sustain Tour 9:243–263. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580108667401
Cannon PF, Hywel-Jones NL, Maczey N et al (2009) Steps towards sustainable harvest of Ophiocordyceps sinensis in Bhutan. Biodivers Conserv 18:2263–2281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-009-9587-5
Chakraborty K, Sudhakar S, Sarma KK et al (2018) Recognizing the rapid expansion of rubber plantation: a threat to native forest in parts of northeast India. Curr Sci. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v114/i01/207-213
Chakravartty A (2020) Assam’s tribal communities lost land and forest to mining. Mongabay-India. https://india.mongabay.com/2020/11/assams-tribal-communities-lost-land-and-forest-to-mining/. Accessed 22 Jun 2021
Chandra Sekar K (2012) Invasive alien plants of Indian Himalayan region: diversity and implication. Am J Plant Sci. https://doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2012.32021
Chaudhary R, Uprety Y, Rimal S (2015) Deforestation in Nepal: causes, consequences and responses. pp 335–372
Chawla A, Chawla S, Pasupuleti S, et al (2018) Landslide susceptibility mapping in Darjeeling Himalayas, India. In: Advances in civil engineering. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ace/2018/6416492/. Accessed 10 Aug 2020
Chellaney B (2017) Countering China’s high-altitude land grab|by Brahma Chellaney. In: Project Syndicate. https://www.project-syndicate.org/commentary/countering-china-himalayan-land-grabs-by-brahma-chellaney-2017-06. Accessed 17 Jan 2022
Chen S (2018) Beijing gold rush “risks turning Himalayas into new South China Sea”. In: South China Morning Post. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2146296/how-chinese-mining-himalayas-may-create-new-military-flashpoint. Accessed 22 Jun 2021
Chhogyel N, Kumar L (2018) Climate change and potential impacts on agriculture in Bhutan: a discussion of pertinent issues. Agric Food Secur 7:79. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40066-018-0229-6
Choudhary A (2004) Human-elephant conflicts in northeast India. Hum Dimens Wildl 9:261–270. https://doi.org/10.1080/10871200490505693
Dasgupta R, Dhyani S, Basu M, et al (2021) Exploring indigenous and local knowledge and practices (ILKPs) in traditional jhum cultivation for localizing sustainable development goals (SDGs): a case study from Zunheboto District of Nagaland, India
Denyer S (2016) Tibetans in anguish as Chinese mines pollute their sacred grasslands. Washington Post
Dharmadhikary S (2008) Mountains of concrete: dam building in the Himalayas. eSocialSciences
Dhyani S, Kadaverugu R, Dhyani D et al (2018) Predicting impacts of climate variability on habitats of Hippophae salicifolia (D. Don) (Seabuckthorn) in Central Himalayas: future challenges. Ecol Inform 48:135–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoinf.2018.09.003
Dhyani S, Dhyani D (2020) Local socio-economic dynamics shaping forest ecosystems in Central Himalayas. In: Roy N, Roychoudhury S, Nautiyal S, Agarwal S, Baksi S (eds) Socio-economic and eco-biological dimensions in resource use and conservation. Environmental Science and Engineering. Springer, Cham
Dhyani S, Kadaverugu R, Pujari P (2020) Predicting impacts of climate variability on Banj oak (Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus) forests: understanding future implications for Central Himalayas. Reg Environ Change 20:113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-020-01696-5
Dhyani S, Sivadas D, Basu O, Karki M (2022) Ecosystem health and risk assessments for high conservation value mountain ecosystems of South Asia: a necessity to guide conservation policies. Anthr Sci. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44177-022-00010-8
Diksha KA (2017) Analysing urban sprawl and land consumption patterns in major capital cities in the Himalayan region using geoinformatics. Appl Geogr 89:112–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2017.10.010
Dobriyal MJ, Bijalwan A (2017) (PDF) Forest fire in western Himalayas of India: a review. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316922468_Forest_fire_in_western_Himalayas_of_India_A_Review. Accessed 5 Aug 2020
Dogra K, Sood S, Dobhal P, Kumar S (2009) Comparison of understorey vegetation in exotic and indigenous tree plantations in Shivalik Hills of N.W. Indian Himalayas (Himachal Pradesh). J Ecol Nat Environ 1:1–10
Dorjee JSB, Buckmaster AJ, Downey PO (2020) Weeds in the land of Gross National Happiness: knowing what to manage by creating a baseline alien plant inventory for Bhutan. Biol Invasions 22:2899–2914. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-020-02306-5
Duffy R, John FAVS, Büscher B, Brockington D (2016) Toward a new understanding of the links between poverty and illegal wildlife hunting. Conserv Biol 30:14–22. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12622
Elsen PR, Kalyanaraman R, Ramesh K, Wilcove DS (2017) The importance of agricultural lands for Himalayan birds in winter. Conserv Biol 31:416–426. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12812
Gayatri SA (2018) Mountains matter: are the Indian Himalayas tourism-sustainable? https://www.downtoearth.org.in/news/environment/mountains-matter-are-the-indian-himalayas-tourism-sustainable--62453. Accessed 30 Sep 2020
Geladi I, Khanyari M, Ryan R (2017) Observation of multiple sarcoptic mange related deaths in Himalayan serow, in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary, India. ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328198304_Observation_of_multiple_sarcoptic_mange_related_deaths_in_Himalayan_serow_in_Kedarnath_Wildlife_Sanctuary_India. Accessed 30 Sep 2020
Ghimire SK, Awasthi B, Rana S et al (2016) Export of medicinal and aromatic plant materials from Nepal, Botanica Orientalis. J Plant Sci 10:24–32. https://doi.org/10.3126/botor.v10i0.21020
Gujja B (2007) Conservation of high-altitude wetlands: experiences of the WWF network. Mred 27:368–371. https://doi.org/10.1659/mrd.mp005
Güneralp B, Perlstein AS, Seto KC (2015) Balancing urban growth and ecological conservation: a challenge for planning and governance in China. Ambio 44:532–543. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-015-0625-0
Gupta N, Everard M (2019) Non-native fishes in the Indian Himalaya: an emerging concern for freshwater scientists. Int J River Basin Manage 17:271–275. https://doi.org/10.1080/15715124.2017.1411929
Gupta DN, Rajvanshi A, Badola R (2017) Climate change and human–wildlife conflicts in the Indian Himalayan biodiversity hotspot. Curr Sci 113:846–847
Gurung J, Chettri N, Sharma E et al (2019) Evolution of a transboundary landscape approach in the Hindu Kush Himalaya: key learnings from the Kangchenjunga landscape. Glob Ecol Conserv 17:e00599. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00599
Gurung CB (2017) Nepal’s forest fires. In: CIFOR forests news. https://forestsnews.cifor.org/48187/nepals-forest-fires?fnl. Accessed 5 Aug 2020
Hauchhum R, Singson MZ (2020) Tree species composition and diversity in abandoned Jhum lands of Mizoram, North East India. Trop Ecol 61:187–195. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42965-020-00079-5
He J, Zhou Z, Yang H, Xu J (2011) Integrative management of commercialized wild mushroom: a case study of Thelephora ganbajun in Yunnan, southwest China. Environ Manage 48:98–108. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9691-7
Hinsley A, Milner-Gulland EJ, Cooney R et al (2020) Building sustainability into the belt and road initiative’s traditional Chinese medicine trade. Nat Sustain 3:96–100. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-019-0460-6
Hock R, Rasul G, Adler C, Cáceres B, Gruber S, Hirabayashi Y, Jackson M, Kääb A, Kang S, Kutuzov S, Milner A, Molau U, Morin S, Orlove B, Steltzer H (2019) High mountain areas. In: Pörtner H-O, Roberts DC, Masson-Delmotte V, Zhai P, Tignor M, Poloczanska E, Mintenbeck K, Alegría A, Nicolai M, Okem A, Petzold J, Rama B, Weyer NM (eds) IPCC special report on the ocean and cryosphere in a changing climate. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 131–202. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009157964.004
Hopping KA, Chignell SM, Lambin EF (2018) The demise of caterpillar fungus in the Himalayan region due to climate change and overharvesting. PNAS 115:11489–11494. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1811591115
Hoy A, Katel O, Thapa P et al (2016) Climatic changes and their impact on socio-economic sectors in the Bhutan Himalayas: an implementation strategy. Reg Environ Change 16:1401–1415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-015-0868-0
Hussain A, Sarangi GK, Pandit A et al (2019) Hydropower development in the Hindu Kush Himalayan region: issues, policies and opportunities. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 107:446–461. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2019.03.010
Iqbal A, Shang Z (2020) Wetlands as a carbon sink: insight into the Himalayan Region. In: Shang Z, Degen AA, Rafiq MK, Squires VR (eds) Carbon management for promoting local livelihood in the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region. Springer, Cham, pp 125–144
Ishtiaq F, Bowden CGR, Jhala YV (2017) Seasonal dynamics in mosquito abundance and temperature do not influence avian malaria prevalence in the Himalayan foothills. Ecol Evol 7:8040–8057. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3319
Ito T (2011) Road expansion and its influence on trail sustainability in Bhutan. Forests 2:1031–1048. https://doi.org/10.3390/f2041031
Ives JD, Ives JD, Messerli B (1989) The Himalayan dilemma: reconciling development and conservation. Psychology Press, New York
Jabbar Khan A, Akhter G, Gabriel HF, Shahid M (2020) Anthropogenic effects of coal mining on ecological resources of the Central Indus Basin, Pakistan. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17:1255. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17041255
Kala CP (2005) A multifaceted review on the biodiversity conservation of the Valley of Flowers National Park, India. Int J Biodivers Sci Manag 1:25–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/17451590509618077
Kamp U, Growley BJ, Khattak GA, Owen LA (2008) GIS-based landslide susceptibility mapping for the 2005 Kashmir earthquake region. Geomorphology 101:631–642. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.03.003
Kaszta Ż, Cushman SA, Htun S et al (2020) Simulating the impact of belt and road initiative and other major developments in Myanmar on an ambassador felid, the clouded leopard, Neofelis nebulosa. Landsc Ecol 35:727–746. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10980-020-00976-z
Khai TC, Mizoue N, Kajisa T et al (2016) Stand structure, composition and illegal logging in selectively logged production forests of Myanmar: comparison of two compartments subject to different cutting frequency. Glob Ecol Conserv 7:132–140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2016.06.001
Khan RS (2016) Pakistan’s ‘billion tree tsunami’ gains ground. In: The wire. https://thewire.in/environment/pakistans-billion-tree-tsunami-gains-ground. Accessed 4 Aug 2020
Khan H, Baig S (2017) High altitude wetlands of the HKH region of Northern Pakistan: status of current knowledge, challenges and research opportunities. Wetlands 37:371–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13157-016-0868-y
Khan AA, Qureshi B, Awan MS (2006) Impact of musk trade on the decline in Himalayan musk deer Moschus chrysogaster population in Neelum Valley, Pakistan. Curr Sci 91:696–699
Khattak GA, Owen LA, Kamp U, Harp EL (2010) Evolution of earthquake-triggered landslides in the Kashmir Himalaya, northern Pakistan. Geomorphology 115:102–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2009.09.035
Khurshid M, Mohammad N, Somuncu M (2017) Understanding the role of agriculture encroachment in pastoral resources degradation in Western Himalaya of Northern Pakistan. J Sustain Agric 33:298–305. https://doi.org/10.17582/journal.sja/2017/33.2.298.305
Koh LP, Li Y, Lee JSH (2021) The value of China’s ban on wildlife trade and consumption. Nat Sustain 4:2–4. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-00677-0
Körner K, Ohsawa M, Spehn E, Berge E, Bugmann H, Groombridge B, Hamilton L, Hofer T, Ives J, Jodha N, Messerli B, Pratt J, Price M, Reasoner M, Rodgers A, Thonell J, Yoshino M (2005) Chapter 24: mountain systems. In: Hassan R, Scholes R, Ash N (eds) Ecosystems and human wellbeing Current state and trends: findings of the condition and trends working group. Millennium ecosystem assessment 1. Island Press, Washington, DC, pp 681–716
Krishna M, Kumar A, Ray P et al (2013) Impact of road widening on wildlife in Namdapha National Park, Arunachal Pradesh, India: a conservation issue. Asian J Conserv Biol 2:76–78
Kulkarni A, Patwardhan S, Kumar KK et al (2013) Projected climate change in the Hindu Kush-Himalayan region by using the high-resolution regional climate model PRECIS. Mt Res Dev 33:142–151
Kumar P (2012) Assessment of impact of climate change on Rhododendrons in Sikkim Himalayas using Maxent modelling: limitations and challenges. Biodivers Conserv 21:1251–1266. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-012-0279-1
Kumar L, Lamsal P (2017) High altitude wetlands of Nepal. In: Finlayson CM, Milton GR, Prentice RC, Davidson NC (eds) The wetland book: II: distribution, description and conservation. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 1–9
Kunwar R (2006) Forest fire in the Terai, Nepal causes and community management interventions. Int for Fire News 34:46–54
Lahiri-Dutt K, Brown H (2017) Governing the ungovernable? Reflections on informal gemstone mining in high-altitude borderlands of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. Local Environ 22:1428–1443. https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2017.1357688
Laiolo P (2004) Diversity and structure of the bird community overwintering in the Himalayan subalpine zone: is conservation compatible with tourism? Biol Conserv 115:251–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(03)00145-9
Lamsal P, Kumar L, Aryal A, Atreya K (2018) Invasive alien plant species dynamics in the Himalayan region under climate change. Ambio 47(6):697–710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-018-1017-z
Lemelin M (2020) Two new protected areas in Nepal’s Himalayas. In: Rainforest trust saves rainforest. https://www.rainforesttrust.org/two-new-protected-areas-in-nepals-himalayas/. Accessed 2 Feb 2021
Lindenmayer DB, Sato C (2018) Hidden collapse is driven by fire and logging in a socioecological forest ecosystem. PNAS 115:5181–5186. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1721738115
Lindenmayer D, Messier C, Sato C (2016) Avoiding ecosystem collapse in managed forest ecosystems. Front Ecol Environ 14:561–568. https://doi.org/10.1002/fee.1434
Liu X, Blackburn T, Song T et al (2019) Risks of biological invasion on the belt and road. Curr Biol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2018.12.036
Loewen MD, Sharma S, Tomy G et al (2005) Persistent organic pollutants and mercury in the Himalaya. Aquat Ecosyst Health Manage 8:223–233. https://doi.org/10.1080/14634980500220924
Mahagaonkar A, Wangchuk S, Ramanathan AL et al (2017) Glacier environment and climate change in Bhutan: an overview. J Clim Change 3:1–10. https://doi.org/10.3233/JCC-170010
Mandal RB, Rai S, Shrestha MK et al (2016) Water quality and red bloom algae of fish ponds in three different regions of Nepal. Our Nat 14:71–77. https://doi.org/10.3126/on.v14i1.16443
Mandal R, Shrestha J, Pandit P (2018) Effect of red algal bloom on growth and production of carps. Our Nat 16:48–54. https://doi.org/10.3126/on.v16i1.22122
Manish K, Pandit MK (2018) Geophysical upheavals and evolutionary diversification of plant species in the Himalaya. Peer J 6:e5919. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.5919
Mehraj G, Khuroo AA, Qureshi S et al (2018) Patterns of alien plant diversity in the urban landscapes of global biodiversity hotspots: a case study from the Himalayas. Biodivers Conserv 27:1055–1072. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-017-1478-6
Mehta P, Bisht K, Sekar KC (2021) Diversity of threatened medicinal plants of Indian Himalayan Region. Plant Biosyst 155:1121–1132. https://doi.org/10.1080/11263504.2020.1837278
Ministry of Works and Human Settlement Royal Government of Bhutan. 2016. The 3rd UN conference on housing and sustainable urban development. http://habitat3.org/wp-content/uploads/Bhutan_Habitat-III-National-Report.pdf
Misra S, Maikhuri RK, Dhyani D, Rao K (2009) Assessment of traditional rights, local interference and natural resource management in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol 16(6):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504500903332008
Murray N, Keith D, Tizard R, et al (2020) Threatened ecosystems of Myanmar. An IUCN red list of ecosystems assessment. Version 1.0
Myers N (1986) Environmental repercussions of deforestation in the Himalayas. J World For Res Manage 2:63–72
Naha D, Sathyakumar S, Rawat GS (2018) Understanding drivers of human-leopard conflicts in the Indian Himalayan region: spatio-temporal patterns of conflicts and perception of local communities towards conserving large carnivores. PLoS ONE 13:e0204528. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0204528
Nakarmi AM, Sharma B, Rajbhandari US et al (2020) Mitigating the impacts of air pollutants in Nepal and climate co-benefits: a scenario-based approach. Air Qual Atmos Health 13:361–370. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-020-00799-6
Napper IE, Davies BFR, Clifford H et al (2020) Reaching new heights in plastic pollution—preliminary findings of microplastics on Mount Everest. One Earth 3:621–630. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.oneear.2020.10.020
Nautiyal A (2015) Is Chir Pine Displacing Banj Oak in the Central Himalaya? Socioeconomic implications for local people and the conservation of Oak forest biodiversity
Nie Y, Sheng Y, Liu Q et al (2017) A regional-scale assessment of Himalayan glacial lake changes using satellite observations from 1990 to 2015. Remote Sens Environ 189:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2016.11.008
Nijman V, Zhang MX, Shepherd CR (2016) Pangolin trade in the Mong La wildlife market and the role of Myanmar in the smuggling of pangolins into China. Glob Ecol Conserv 5:118–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2015.12.003
O’Neill AR (2019) Evaluating high-altitude Ramsar wetlands in the Eastern Himalayas. Glob Ecol Conserv 20:e00715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00715
Olsen CS, Larsen HO (2003) Alpine medicinal plant trade and Himalayan mountain livelihood strategies. Geogr J 169:243–254. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-4959.00088
Padmawathe R, Qureshi Q, Rawat GS (2004) Effects of selective logging on vascular epiphyte diversity in a moist lowland forest of Eastern Himalaya, India. Biol Cons 119:81–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2003.10.024
Padoa-Schioppa E, Baietto M (2008) Effects of tourism pressure on herd composition in the Sherpa villages of Sagarmatha National Park (Everest, Nepal). Int J Sust Dev World 15:412–418. https://doi.org/10.3843/SusDev.15.5:2
Pande A, Joshi RC, Jalal DS (2002) Selected landslide types in the Central Himalaya: their relation to geological structure and anthropogenic activities. Environmentalist 22:269–287. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1016536013793
Pandey D, Adhiguru P, Sah U et al (2020) Is rubber monoculture banishing agrobiodiversity and happiness? Evidences from shifting cultivation landscape of Tripura, northeast India. Curr Sci. https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v118/i1/108-113
Pandit MK (2013) The Himalayas must be protected. Nature 501:283. https://doi.org/10.1038/501283a
Pandit M, Grumbine R (2012) Potential effects of ongoing and proposed hydropower development on terrestrial biological diversity in the Indian Himalaya. Conserv Biol 26:1918. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2012.01918.x
Pandit M, Sodhi N, Koh L et al (2007) Unreported yet massive deforestation driving loss of endemic biodiversity in Indian Himalaya. Biodivers Conserv 16:153–163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-006-9038-5
Pandit MK, Manish K, Koh LP (2014) Dancing on the roof of the world: ecological transformation of the Himalayan landscape. Bioscience 64:980–992. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biu152
Pantha K, Acharya K, Mohapatra S et al (2021) Faecal pollution source tracking in the holy Bagmati river by portable 16S rRNA gene sequencing. NPJ Clean Water 4:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-021-00099-1
Papworth S, Rao M, Oo MM et al (2017) The impact of gold mining and agricultural concessions on the tree cover and local communities in northern Myanmar. Sci Rep 7:46594. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep46594
Pathak R, Negi VS, Rawal RS, Bhatt ID (2019) Alien plant invasion in the Indian Himalayan region: state of knowledge and research priorities. Biodivers Conserv 28:3073–3102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-019-01829-1
Peerzada IA, Chamberlain J, Reddy M et al (2021) Policy and governance implications for transition to NTFP-based bioeconomy in Kashmir Himalayas. Sustainability 13:11811. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132111811
PIB (2021) North-Eastern Region to emerge as a hub for rubber production: Shri Piyush Goyal. https://pib.gov.in/pib.gov.in/Pressreleaseshare.aspx?PRID=1779666. Accessed 17 Jan 2022
Poudyal BH, Maraseni TN, Cockfield G (2019) Implications of selective harvesting of natural forests for forest product recovery and forest carbon emissions: cases from Tarai Nepal and Queensland Australia. Forests 10:693. https://doi.org/10.3390/f10080693
Pradhan B, Mandal B (2015) Study of water quality of three major rivers of Bhutan. J Indian Chem Soc 92:497–500
Prokop P (2018) Tea plantations as a driving force of long-term land use and population changes in the Eastern Himalayan piedmont. Land Use Policy 77:51–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2018.05.035
Qamer FM, Shehzad K, Abbas S et al (2016) Mapping deforestation and forest degradation patterns in Western Himalaya, Pakistan. Remote Sens 8:385. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8050385
Qasim M, Hubacek K, Termansen M, Khan A (2011) Spatial and temporal dynamics of land use pattern in District Swat, Hindu Kush Himalayan region of Pakistan. Appl Geogr 31:820–828. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apgeog.2010.08.008
Raizada A, Juyal GP (2012) Tree species diversity, species regeneration and biological productivity of seeded Acacia catechu Willd. In rehabilitated limestone mines in the North West Indian Himalayas. Land Degrad Dev 23:167–174. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.1067
Raman TRS (2014) Mizoram: bamboozled by land use policy. The Hindu
Rana SK, Rawat GS (2017) Database of Himalayan plants based on published floras during a century. Data 2:36. https://doi.org/10.3390/data2040036
Rana SK, Price TD, Qian H (2019) Plant species richness across the Himalaya driven by evolutionary history and current climate. Ecosphere 10:e02945. https://doi.org/10.1002/ecs2.2945
Ranjan R (2018) What drives forest degradation in the central Himalayas? Understanding the feedback dynamics between participatory forest management institutions and the species composition of forests. For Policy Econ 95:85–101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.forpol.2018.07.010
Rao M, Zaw T, Htun S, Myint T (2011) Hunting for a living: wildlife trade, rural livelihoods and declining wildlife in the Hkakaborazi National Park, North Myanmar. Environ Manage 48:158–167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-011-9662-z
Ray A, Kumar RESC, Bharati AK et al (2020) Hazard chart for identification of potential landslide due to the presence of residual soil in the Himalayas. Indian Geotech J 50:604–619. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40098-019-00401-6
Reddy CS, Satish KV, Jha CS et al (2016) Development of deforestation and land cover database for Bhutan (1930–2014). Environ Monit Assess. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5676-6
Reddy CS, Satish KV, Pasha SV, Saranya KRL, Jha CS, Diwakar PG, Dadhwal VK, Rao PVN, Murthy YK (2017) Earth observation based forest monitoring and conservation in biodiversity hotspots of South Asia. In ACRS-2017. Presented at the 38th Asian Conference on Remote Sensing. Asian Association on Remote Sensing (AARS) New Delhi
Reshi ZA, Dar PA, Bhat MS et al (2020) Urbanization and its impact on biodiversity in the Kashmir Himalaya. In: Dar GH, Khuroo AA (eds) Biodiversity of the Himalaya: Jammu and Kashmir state. Springer, Singapore, pp 1011–1028
Rimal B, Baral H, Stork NE, Paudyal K, Rijal S (2015) Growing city and rapid land use transition: assessing multiple hazards and risks in the Pokhara Valley. Nepal Land 4(4):957–978. https://doi.org/10.3390/land4040957
Rimal B, Zhang L, Stork N, Sloan S, Rijal S (2018) Urban expansion occurred at the expense of agricultural lands in the Tarai region of Nepal from 1989 to 2016. Sustainability 10(5):1341. https://doi.org/10.3390/su10051341
Roy R, Karki S, Karky BS, et al (2015) REDD+ in the Hindu Kush Himalayas: a stocktaking study from Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and Pakistan
Sahu N, Saini A, Behera SK et al (2020) Why apple orchards are shifting to the higher altitudes of the Himalayas? PLoS ONE 15:e0235041. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0235041
Saikawa E, Panday A, Kang S et al (2019) Air pollution in the Hindu Kush Himalaya. In: Wester P, Mishra A, Mukherji A, Shrestha AB (eds) The Hindu Kush Himalaya assessment: mountains, climate change, sustainability and people. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 339–387
Salick J, Fang Z, Byg A (2009) Eastern Himalayan alpine plant ecology, Tibetan ethnobotany, and climate change. Glob Environ Chang 19:147–155. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.01.008
Sambandam S, Bhattacharya T, Mondal K, et al (2016) Human–wildlife interactions (conflicts) in the Indian Himalayan Region: current scenario and the path ahead
Sampson C, Leimgruber P, Rodriguez S et al (2019) Perception of human-elephant conflict and conservation attitudes of affected communities in Myanmar. Trop Conserv Sci 12:1940082919831242. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940082919831242
Sangay T, Vernes K (2008) Human–wildlife conflict in the Kingdom of Bhutan: patterns of livestock predation by large mammalian carnivores. Biol Conserv 141:1272–1282. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.02.027
Saqib N, Yaqub A, Amin G et al (2019) The impact of tourism on local communities and their environment in Gilgit Baltistan, Pakistan: a local community perspective. Environ Socio-Econ Stud 7:24–37. https://doi.org/10.2478/environ-2019-0015
Sarma K, Barik SK (2011) Coal mining impact on vegetation of the Nokrek Biosphere Reserve, Meghalaya, India. Biodiversity 12:154–164. https://doi.org/10.1080/14888386.2011.629779
Sarma K, Yadav PK (2013) Relentless mining in Meghalaya, India. Conserv Sci 1:5–12. https://doi.org/10.3126/cs.v1i1.8578
Sato CF, Lindenmayer DB (2018) Meeting the global ecosystem collapse challenge. Conserv Lett 11:e12348. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12348
Saud B, Paudel G (2018) The threat of ambient air pollution in Kathmandu Nepal. J Environ Public Health 2018:e1504591. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/1504591
Schickhoff U (1995) Himalayan forest-cover changes in historical perspective: A case study in the Kaghan Valley, Northern Pakistan. Mt Res Dev 15:3. https://doi.org/10.2307/3673697
Sears R, Phuntsho S, Dorji T et al (2017) Forest ecosystem services and the pillars of Bhutan’s gross national happiness. Center for International Forestry Research CIFOR, Bogor
Shah S, Sharma D (2015) Land use change detection in Solan forest division, Himachal Pradesh, India. For Ecosyst 2:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40663-015-0050-7
Sharma P, Chettri N, Uddin K et al (2020) Mapping human-wildlife conflict hotspots in a transboundary landscape, Eastern Himalaya. Glob Ecol Conserv 24:e01284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2020.e01284
Sharma A, Dubey VK, Johnson JA et al (2021) Is there always space at the top? Ensemble modeling reveals climate-driven high-altitude squeeze for the vulnerable snow trout Schizothorax richardsonii in Himalaya. Ecol Indicat 120:106900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.106900
Shehzad K, Qamer FM, Murthy MSR et al (2014) Deforestation trends and spatial modelling of its drivers in the dry temperate forests of northern Pakistan: a case study of Chitral. J Mt Sci 11:1192–1207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-013-2932-x
Sheikh MM, Fazili MF, Tak H, Bhat BA (2017) Parasitic prevalence in Himalayan black bear (Ursus thibetanus) in Kashmir Himalayas. Int J Vet Sci Anim Husb 2:10–12
Shepherd CR, Nijman V (2008) The trade in bear parts from Myanmar: an illustration of the ineffectiveness of enforcement of international wildlife trade regulations. Biodivers Conserv 17:35–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-007-9228-9
Sheth C, Datta A, Parashuram D (2019) Persistent loss of biologically-rich tropical forests in the Indian Eastern Himalaya. BioRxiv. https://doi.org/10.1101/827360
Shrestha UB, Bawa KS (2013) Trade, harvest, and conservation of caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) in the Himalayas. Biol Conserv 159:514–520. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2012.10.032
Shrestha UB, Bawa KS (2014) Impact of Climate change on potential distribution of Chinese caterpillar fungus (Ophiocordyceps sinensis) in Nepal Himalaya. PLoS ONE 9:e106405. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0106405
Shrestha R, Desai J, Mukherji A et al (2018) Protocol for reviving springs in the Hindu Kush Himalayas: a practitioner’s manual. Springer, New York
Singh AP (2011) Incidence of oak borers and oak mortality in Garhwal Himalaya, India. Indian for 137:1188–1193
Singh G, Agarwal N (2017) Impact of hydropower project (RoR) on the ichthyofaunal diversity of river Birahiganga in Central Himalaya (India). J Fish 5:507–512. https://doi.org/10.17017/jfish.v5i2.2017.192
Singh L, Lakhanpal TN (2000) Cedrus deodara root rot disease-threat to the Himalayan forestry and environment. Indian Phytopathol 53:50–56
Singh SP, Singh V, Skutsch M (2010) Rapid warming in the Himalayas: Ecosystem responses and development options. Clim Dev 2:221–232. https://doi.org/10.3763/cdev.2010.0048
Singh RD, Gumber S, Tewari P, Singh SP (2016) Nature of forest fires in Uttarakhand: frequency, size and seasonal patterns in relation to pre-monsoonal environment. Curr Sci 111:398–403
Sivakumar MVK, Stefanski R (2011) Climate change in South Asia. In: Lal R, Sivakumar MVK, Faiz SMA et al (eds) Climate change and food security in South Asia. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 13–30
Somvanshi A (2021) Forest fires in Uttarakhand: absence of real-time air quality monitoring plagues Himalayas. https://www.downtoearth.org.in/blog/pollution/forest-fires-in-uttarakhand-absence-of-real-time-air-quality-monitoring-plagues-himalayas-76415. Accessed 24 Jun 2021
Srinivasan U (2015) Oil palm expansion. Econ Polit Wkly 1:7–8
Subedi A, Kunwar B, Choi Y et al (2013) Collection and trade of wild-harvested orchids in Nepal. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 9:64. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-64
Tamang S (2020) Red pandas in India are being trafficked into extinction. And laws stand in the way. In: ThePrint. https://theprint.in/opinion/red-pandas-are-being-trafficked-into-extinction-india/489177/. Accessed 24 Sep 2020
Tariq MAUR, Wangchuk K, Muttil N (2021) A critical review of water resources and their management in Bhutan. Hydrology 8:31. https://doi.org/10.3390/hydrology8010031
Thapa S, Chitale V, Rijal SJ et al (2018) Understanding the dynamics in distribution of invasive alien plant species under predicted climate change in Western Himalaya. PLoS ONE 13:e0195752. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0195752
Thiney U, Banterng P, Gonkhamdee S, Katawatin R (2019) Distributions of alien invasive weeds under climate change scenarios in mountainous Bhutan. Agronomy 9:442. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9080442
Third P (2021) Fires ravage forests in Himalayas, threatening health and biodiversity. In: The third pole. https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/climate/fires-ravage-forests-himalayas-threatening-health-biodiversity/. Accessed 21 Jun 2021
Thomas WE, Dolman PM, Edwards DP (2015) Increasing demand for natural rubber necessitates a robust sustainability initiative to mitigate impacts on tropical biodiversity. Conserv Lett 8(4):230–241. https://doi.org/10.1111/conl.12170
Tiwari MP, Devkota BP, Jackson RM et al (2020) What Factors predispose households in trans-himalaya (Central Nepal) to livestock predation by snow leopards? Animals 10:2187. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani10112187
Uddin K, Chaudhary S, Chettri N et al (2015) The changing land cover and fragmenting forest on the roof of the world: A case study in Nepal’s Kailash sacred landscape. Landsc Urban Plan 141:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landurbplan.2015.04.003
Uprety A, Ozaki A, Higuchi A et al (2019) The 2015 Nepal earthquake and worsening air pollution in Kathmandu. Lancet Planet Health 3:e8–e9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30247-X
Uprety Y, Chettri N, Dhakal M et al (2021) Illegal wildlife trade is threatening conservation in the transboundary landscape of Western Himalaya. J Nat Conserv 59:125952. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2020.125952
Vadrevu KP, Lasko K, Giglio L et al (2019) Trends in vegetation fires in South and Southeast Asian countries. Sci Rep 9:7422. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-43940-x
Van Den Hoek J, Smith AC, Hurni K, Saksena S, Fox J (2021) Shedding new light on mountainous forest growth: a cross-scale evaluation of the effects of topographic illumination correction on 25 years of forest cover change across Nepal. Remote Sens 13(11):2131. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs13112131
Vloon CC, Evju M, Klanderud K, Hagen D (2021) Alpine restoration: planting and seeding of native species facilitate vegetation recovery. Restor Ecol 30:e13479. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.13479
Wang C, Myint SW (2016) Environmental concerns of deforestation in Myanmar 2001–2010. Remote Sens 8:728. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8090728
Wang X et al (2008) The historical residue trends of DDT, hexachlorocyclohexanes and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in an ice core from Mt. Everest, central Himalayas. China Atmos Environ 42:6699–6709. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2008.04.035
Wang Y, Wu N, Kunze C et al (2019) Drivers of change to mountain sustainability in the Hindu Kush Himalaya. In: Wester P, Mishra A, Mukherji A, Shrestha AB (eds) The Hindu Kush Himalaya assessment: mountains, climate change, sustainability and people. Springer, Cham, pp 17–56
Wangchuk P, Namgay K, Gayleg K, Dorji Y (2016) Medicinal plants of Dagala region in Bhutan: their diversity, distribution, uses and economic potential. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-016-0098-7
Watershed Management Division (2017) Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in Bhutan. pp 146. https://static1.squarespace.com/static/58d6cc1e17bffcffb801edde/t/59ed1fa6e45a7c27e93bc02c/1508712427664/Bhutan+driver+assessment.pdf. Accessed 15 Mar 2022
WHO (2020) Bhutan: air pollution|IAMAT. https://www.iamat.org/country/bhutan/risk/air-pollution. Accessed 24 Jun 2021
Win RN, Reiji S, Shinya T (2009) Forest cover changes under selective logging in the Kabaung reserved forest, Bago mountains. Myanmar Mred 29:328–338. https://doi.org/10.1659/mrd.00009
Wu J, Myers SL (2020) Battle in the Himalayas. The New York Times
Xu X, Cai H, Sun D et al (2016) Impacts of mining and urbanization on the Qin-Ba mountainous environment. China Sustain 8:488. https://doi.org/10.3390/su8050488
Xu J, Badola R, Chettri N et al (2019) Sustaining biodiversity and ecosystem services in the Hindu Kush Himalaya. In: Wester P, Mishra A, Mukherji A, Shrestha AB (eds) The Hindu Kush Himalaya assessment: mountains, climate change, sustainability and people. Springer, Cham, pp 127–165
Xu Q-F, Liang C-F, Chen J-H et al (2020) Rapid bamboo invasion (expansion) and its effects on biodiversity and soil processes. Glob Ecol Conserv 21:e00787. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00787
Yadav P, Sarma K, Kumar R (2013) A framework for assessing the impact of urbanization and population pressure on Garo Hills landscape of North-East India. Int J Conserv Sci 4:213–222
Yadav P, Kumar A, Hussain SA, Gupta SK (2020) Evaluation of the effect of longitudinal connectivity in population genetic structure of endangered golden mahseer, Tor putitora (Cyprinidae), in Himalayan rivers: implications for its conservation. PLoS ONE 15:e0234377. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0234377
Yi-Ming L, Zenxiang G, Xinhai L et al (2000) Illegal wildlife trade in the Himalayan region of China. Biodivers Conserv 9:901–918. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1008905430813
Ying-qiu X, Li-juan W, Rong-jun Z (2001) Simulating deforestation of Nepal by area production model. J for Res 12:47–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02856800
Yusuf M (2009) Legal and institutional dynamics of forest management in Pakistan. McGill Int J Sustain Dev Law Policy 5:45–71
Zhang M, Gouveia A, Qin T et al (2017) Illegal pangolin trade in northernmost Myanmar and its links to India and China. Glob Ecol Conserv 10:23–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2017.01.006
Zomer RJ, Trabucco A, Metzger MJ et al (2014) Projected climate change impacts on spatial distribution of bioclimatic zones and ecoregions within the Kailash Sacred Landscape of China India Nepal. Clim Change 125:445–460. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-014-1176-2
Zomer RJ, Xu J, Wang M et al (2015) Projected impact of climate change on the effectiveness of the existing protected area network for biodiversity conservation within Yunnan Province China. Biol Conserv 184:335–345. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2015.01.031
Acknowledgements
Author is immensely grateful to the editor Prof. Nigel Stork and an anonymous reviewer for their constructive comments and suggestions to substantially improve the manuscript. The author acknowledges the Knowledge Resource Center, CSIR-NEERI for checking plagiarism using licensed version of i-thenticate software under the number CSIR-NEERI/KRC/2022/JULY/WTMD/2 and AcSIR PhD scholar Ms. Radhika Sood for providing pictures of Cordyceps collection.
Funding
No funding support was received at any stage of research, drafting or development of this manuscript.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
SD conceptualized, reviewed, researched, developed main manuscript text, prepared the figures, reviewed, revised and finalized the manuscript for submission.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
I declare that the author has no competing interests as defined by Springer, or other interests that might be perceived to influence the results and/or discussion reported in this paper.
Additional information
Communicated by Nigel Stork.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Dhyani, S. Are Himalayan ecosystems facing hidden collapse? Assessing the drivers and impacts of change to aid conservation, restoration and conflict resolution challenges. Biodivers Conserv 32, 3731–3764 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-023-02692-x
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-023-02692-x