Abstract
Palms are integral structural and functional components of tropical forest ecosystems, and are one of the most economically important plant families. This monocotyledon lineage exhibits a pantropical distribution with approx. 2600 species. Palm genetic diversity is severely threatened by habitat degradation, fragmentation, extensive resource extraction, and the loss of mutualistic species. This genetic erosion could considerably reduce the adaptation potential and persistence of taxa under climate change, which could pervasively impact the functioning of tropical forest ecosystems. In this review, with the insight of the post-2020 Global Biodiversity Framework, which emphasizes conservation and monitoring of genetic diversity, we summarize the impacts of anthropogenic interventions on palm populations, past decades of research on conservation genetics, and propose a future course of action using genomic and epigenomic approaches to conserve palm genetic resources in the context of climate change. Anthropogenic interventions in natural habitats have considerably reduced viable populations and altered the genetic characteristics of palm populations. Populations of many species are fragmented with disturbed mating patterns owing to the loss of reproductively active individuals and dispersal agents. Furthermore, climate change is predicted to have an adverse impact on current palm distribution, and assisted migration to suitable climatic niches is recommended. In this context, the integration of phenotypic, genetic, epigenetic, and genomic approaches in congruence with bioclimatic variables can enhance the adaptive potential and climatic resilience to implement effective conservation strategies in palms.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data sharing
Data sharing is not applicable to this review article as no datasets were generated during the current study.
References
Aavik T, Helm A (2018) Restoration of plant species and genetic diversity depends on landscape-scale dispersal. Restor Ecol 26:S92–S102. https://doi.org/10.1111/rec.12634
Adin A, Weber JC, Sotelo Montes C et al (2004) Genetic differentiation and trade among populations of peach palm (Bactris gasipaes Kunth) in the peruvian Amazon-implications for genetic resource management. Theor Appl Genet 108:1564–1573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00122-003-1581-9
Aguilar R, Quesada M, Ashworth L et al (2008) Genetic consequences of habitat fragmentation in plant populations: susceptible signals in plant traits and methodological approaches. Mol Ecol 17:5177–5188. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03971.x
Aguilar R, Cristóbal-Pérez EJ, Balvino-Olvera FJ et al (2019) Habitat fragmentation reduces plant progeny quality: a global synthesis. Ecol Lett 22:1163–1173. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.13272
Aguirre A, Dirzo R (2008) Effects of fragmentation on pollinator abundance and fruit set of an abundant understory palm in a mexican tropical forest. Biol Conserv 141:375–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2007.09.014
Alberti M, Marzluff J, Hunt VM (2017) Urban driven phenotypic changes: empirical observations and theoretical implications for eco-evolutionary feedback. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2016.0029
Amaral J, Ribeyre Z, Vigneaud J et al (2020) Advances and promises of epigenetics for forest trees. For 11:976. https://doi.org/10.3390/f11090976
Anthelme F, Lincango J, Gully C et al (2011) How anthropogenic disturbances affect the resilience of a keystone palm tree in the threatened andean cloud forest? Biol Conserv 144:1059–1067. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2010.12.025
Araújo MRG, de Melo Júnior AF, Menezes EV et al (2017) Fine-scale spatial genetic structure and gene flow in Acrocomia aculeata (Arecaceae): analysis in an overlapping generation. Biochem Syst Ecol 71:147–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2017.02.005
Asmussen-lange CB, Maunder M, Fay MF (2011) Conservation genetics of the critically endangered Round Island bottle palm, hyophorbe lagenicaulis (Arecaceae): can cultivated stocks supplement a residual wild population? Bot J Linn Soc 167:301–310. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2011.01175.x
Baker WJ, Dransfield J (2016) Beyond Genera Palmarum: progress and prospects in palm systematics. Bot J Linn Soc 182:207–233. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12401
Balick MJ (1984) Ethnobotany of Palms in the Neotropics. Adv Econ Bot 1:9–23
Balslev H (2011) Palm Harvest Impacts in North-Western South America. Bot Rev 77:370–380. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12229-011-9083-y
Barfod AS, Hagen M, Borchsenius F (2011) Twenty-five years of progress in understanding pollination mechanisms in palms (Arecaceae). Ann Bot 108:1503–1516. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcr192
Bazzo BR, de Carvalho LM, Carazzolle MF et al (2018) Development of novel EST-SSR markers in the macaúba palm (Acrocomia aculeata) using transcriptome sequencing and cross-species transferability in Arecaceae species. BMC Plant Biol 18:276. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-018-1509-9
Bello C, Cintra ALP, Barreto E et al (2021) Environmental niche and functional role similarity between invasive and native palms in the Atlantic Forest. Biol Invasions 23:741–754. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10530-020-02400-8
Benchimol M, Talora DC, Mariano-Neto E et al (2017) Losing our palms: the influence of landscape-scale deforestation on Arecaceae diversity in the Atlantic forest. For Ecol Manage 384:314–322. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2016.11.014
Benito Garzón M, Robson TM, Hampe A (2019) ∆TraitSDMs: species distribution models that account for local adaptation and phenotypic plasticity. New Phytol 222:1757–1765. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.15716
Blach-Overgaard A, Svenning J-C, Dransfield J et al (2010) Determinants of palm species distributions across Africa: the relative roles of climate, non-climatic environmental factors, and spatial constraints. Ecography 33:380–391. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0587.2010.06273.x
Blach-Overgaard A, Balslev H, Dransfield J et al (2015) Global-change vulnerability of a key plant resource, the african palms. Sci Rep 5:12611. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep12611
Brancalion PHS, Oliveira GCX, Zucchi MI et al (2018) Phenotypic plasticity and local adaptation favor range expansion of a neotropical palm. Ecol Evol 8:7462–7475. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.4248
Brokamp G, Valderrama N, Mittelbach M et al (2011) Trade in Palm Products in North-Western South America. Bot Rev 77:571–606. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12229-011-9087-7
Browne L, Ottewell K, Karubian J (2015) Short-term genetic consequences of habitat loss and fragmentation for the neotropical palm Oenocarpus bataua. Heredity 115:389–395. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2015.35
Browne L, Ottewell K, Sork VL, Karubian J (2018) The relative contributions of seed and pollen dispersal to gene flow and genetic diversity in seedlings of a tropical palm. Mol Ecol 27:3159–3173. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.14768
Brudvig LA, Damschen EI, Haddad NM et al (2015) The influence of habitat fragmentation on multiple plant–animal interactions and plant reproduction. Ecology 96:2669–2678. https://doi.org/10.1890/14-2275.1
Butler CJ, Larson M (2020) Climate change winners and losers: the effects of climate change on five palm species in the Southeastern United States. Ecol Evol 10:10408–10425. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6697
Byers DL, Waller DM (1999) Do plant populations purge their genetic load? Effects of population size and mating history on inbreeding depression. Annu Rev Ecol Syst 30:479–513. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.30.1.479
Calambás-Trochez LF, Velazco SJE, Hoffmann PM et al (2021) Climate and land-use changes coupled with low coverage of protected areas threaten palm species in South brazilian grasslands. Perspect Ecol Conserv 19:345–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2021.03.010
Carvalho CS, Ribeiro MC, Côrtes MC, Galetti M, Collevatti RG (2015) Contemporary and historic factors influence differently genetic differentiation and diversity in a tropical palm heredity. 115:216–224. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2015.30
Carvalho C, Galetti S, Colevatti M, Jordano RG P (2016) Defaunation leads to microevolutionary changes in a tropical palm. Sci Rep 6:31957. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep31957
Carvalho CS, Ballesteros-Mejia L, Ribeiro MC et al (2017) Climatic stability and contemporary human impacts affect the genetic diversity and conservation status of a tropical palm in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil. Conserv Genet 18:467–478. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-016-0921-7
Carvalho CS, García C, Lucas MS et al (2021a) Extant fruit-eating birds promote genetically diverse seed rain, but disperse to fewer sites in defaunated tropical forests. J Ecol 109:1055–1067. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13534
Carvalho C, da Lucas S, Côrtes MS MC (2021b) Rescuing intraspecific variation in human-impacted environments. J Appl Ecol 58:350–359. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2664.13764
Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Barnosky AD et al (2015) Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: entering the sixth mass extinction. Sci Adv 1:e1400253. https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1400253
Chacón-Vargas K, García-Merchán VH, Sanín MJ (2020) From keystone species to conservation: conservation genetics of wax palm Ceroxylon quindiuense in the largest wild populations of Colombia and selected neighboring ex situ plant collections. Biodivers Conserv 29:283–302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-019-01882-w
Christmas MJ, Breed MF, Lowe AJ (2016) Constraints to and conservation implications for climate change adaptation in plants. Conserv Genet 17:305–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-015-0782-5
Cibrián-Jaramillo A, Bacon CD, Garwood NC et al (2009) Population genetics of the understory fishtail palm Chamaedorea ernesti-augusti in Belize: high genetic connectivity with local differentiation. BMC Genet 10:65. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2156-10-65
CITES (2021) Checklist of CITES species. https://checklist.cites.org/#/en. Accessed 2 December 2021
Coelho GM, Santos AS, de Menezes IPP et al (2020) Genetic structure among morphotypes of the endangered brazilian palm Euterpe edulis Mart (Arecaceae). Ecol Evol 10:6039–6048. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6348
Coelho NHP, Tambarussi EV, Aguiar BI et al (2018) Understanding genetic diversity, spatial genetic structure, and mating system through microsatellite markers for the conservation and sustainable use of Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Lodd. Ex Mart. Conserv Genet 19:879–891. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-018-1061-z
Cordero S, Gálvez F, Fontúrbel FE (2021) Multiple anthropogenic pressures lead to seed dispersal collapse of the southernmost palm Jubaea chilensis. Front Ecol Evol 9:719566. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2021.719566
Corlett RT (2016) Restoration, reintroduction, and rewilding in a changing world. Trends Ecol Evol 31:453–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2016.02.017
Cosiaux A, Gardiner LM, Stauffer FW et al (2018) Low extinction risk for an important plant resource: conservation assessments of continental african palms (Arecaceae/Palmae). Biol Conserv 221:323–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2018.02.025
Couvreur TLP, Forest F, Baker WJ (2011) Origin and global diversification patterns of tropical rain forests: inferences from a complete genus-level phylogeny of palms. BMC Biol 9:44. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7007-9-44
Couvreur TLP, Baker WJ (2013) Tropical rain forest evolution: palms as a model group. BMC Biol 11:48. https://doi.org/10.1186/1741-7007-11-48
Crnokrak P, Barrett SCH (2002) Perspective: purging the genetic load: a review of the experimental evidence. Evolution 56:2347–2358. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb00160.x
Dauphin B, Wüest RO, Brodbeck S et al (2020) Disentangling the effects of geographic peripherality and habitat suitability on neutral and adaptive genetic variation in swiss stone pine. Mol Ecol 29:1972–1989. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.15467
Dyer MJB, Keppel G, Tuiwawa M et al (2018) Invasive alien palm Pinanga coronata threatens native tree ferns in an oceanic island rainforest. Aust J Bot 66:647–656
Des-Roches S, Post DM, Turley NE et al (2018) The ecological importance of intraspecific variation. Nat Ecol Evol 2:57–64. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-017-0402-5
Des-Roches S, Pendleton LH, Shapiro B, Palkovacs EP (2021) Conserving intraspecific variation for nature’s contributions to people. Nat Ecol Evol. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-021-01403-5
Dev SA, Balakrishnan S, Kurian A, Sreekumar VB(2019) Narrow gene pool can threaten the survival of Calamus nagbettai R. R. Fernald & Dey: a highly, endemic dioecious rattan species in the Western Ghats of India. J Genet 98:100. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12041-019-1147-5
Deolu-Ajayi AO, Meyer AJ, Haring MA, Julkowska MM, Testerink C (2019) Genetic loci associated with early salt stress responses of roots. iScience 21:458–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.isci.2019.10.043
Dowe JL, Benzie J, Ballment E(1997) Ecology and genetics of Carpoxylon macrospermum H. Wendl. & Drude (Arecaceae), an endangered palm from Vanuatu. Biol Conserv 79:205–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(96)00094-8
Dransfield J (1981) Palms and wallace’s line. Whitmore TC. Wallace’s line and plate tectonics. Missouri Botanical Garden Press, pp 43–56
Dransfield J, Uhl NW, Asmussen CB et al (2008) Genera Palmarum - the evolution and classification of the Palms. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew PP - London, UK
Du FK, Wang T, Wang Y et al (2020) Contrasted patterns of local adaptation to climate change across the range of an evergreen oak, Quercus aquifolioides. Evol Appl 13:2377–2391. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.13030
Dudash MR, Fenster CB (2000) Inbreeding and outbreeding depression in fragmented populations. In: Young AG, Clarke GM (eds) Genetics, demography and viability of fragmented populations. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 35–54
Duncan EJ, Gluckman PD, Dearden PK (2014) Epigenetics, plasticity, and evolution: how do we link epigenetic change to phenotype? J Exp Zool Part B Mol Dev Evol 322:208–220. https://doi.org/10.1002/jez.b.22571
Eiserhardt WL, Svenning J-C, Kissling WD, Balslev H (2011) Geographical ecology of the palms (Arecaceae): determinants of diversity and distributions across spatial scales. Ann Bot 108:1391–1416. https://doi.org/10.1093/aob/mcr146
Eiserhardt WL, Svenning J-C, Baker WJ et al (2013) Dispersal and niche evolution jointly shape the geographic turnover of phylogenetic clades across continents. Sci Rep 3:1164. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep01164
Escobar S, Helmstetter AJ, Jarvie S et al (2021) Pleistocene climatic fluctuations promoted alternative evolutionary histories in Phytelephas aequatorialis, an endemic palm from western Ecuador. J Biogeogr 48:1023–1037. https://doi.org/10.1111/jbi.14055
Federman S, Hyseni C, Clement W et al (2014) Habitat fragmentation and the genetic structure of the amazonian palm Mauritia flexuosa L.f. (Arecaceae) on the island of Trinidad. Conserv Genet 15:355–362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-013-0543-2
Fehr V, Buitenwerf R, Svenning J-C (2020) Non-native palms (Arecaceae) as generators of novel ecosystems: a global assessment. Divers Distrib 26:1523–1538. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13150
Frankham R (1997) Do island populations have less genetic variation than mainland populations? Heredity 78:311–327. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.1997.46
Galetti M, Donatti CI, Pires AS et al (2006) Seed survival and dispersal of an endemic Atlantic forest palm: the combined effects of defaunation and forest fragmentation. Bot J Linn Soc 151:141–149. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2006.00529.x
Galetti M, Guevara R, Côrtes MC et al (2013) Functional extinction of birds drives Rapid Evolutionary changes in seed size. Science 340:1086–1090. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1233774
Galetti M, Bovendorp RS, Guevara R (2015) Defaunation of large mammals leads to an increase in seed predation in the Atlantic forests. Glob Ecol Conserv 3:824–830. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2015.04.008
Gardiner LM, Rakotoarinivo M, Rajaovelona LR, Clubbe C (2017) Population genetics data help to guide the conservation of palm species with small population sizes and fragmented habitats in Madagascar. PeerJ 5:e3248–e3248. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3248
Dasgupta M, Dev SA, Muneera Parveen AB et al(2021) Draft genome of Korthalsia laciniosa (Griff.) Mart., a climbing rattan elucidates its phylogenetic position. Genomics 113:2010–2022. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygeno.2021.04.023
Giombini MI, Bravo SP, Sica YV, Tosto DS (2017) Early genetic consequences of defaunation in a large-seeded vertebrate-dispersed palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana). Heredity 118:568–577. https://doi.org/10.1038/hdy.2016.130
González-Rivillas N, Bohórquez A, Patricia Gutierrez J, García-Merchán VH(2018) Diversity and population genetic structure of the wax palm Ceroxylon quindiuense in the Colombian coffee region. bioRxiv 443960. https://doi.org/10.1101/443960
Govaerts R, Dransfield J, Zona S, Hodel DR, Henderson A(2020) world checklist of Arecaceae. facilitated by the royal botanic gardens, Kew. https://wcsp.science.kew.org/qsearch.do (accessed 15/11/2021)
Griffith MP, Cartwright F, Dosmann M et al (2021) Ex situ conservation of large and small plant populations illustrates limitations of common conservation metrics. Int J Plant Sci 182:263–276. https://doi.org/10.1086/713446
Gugger PF, Fitz-Gibbon S, PellEgrini M, Sork VL (2016) Species-wide patterns of DNA methylation variation in Quercus lobata and their association with climate gradients. Mol Ecol 25:1665–1680. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.13563
Hamabata T, Kinoshita G, Kurita K et al (2019) Endangered island endemic plants have vulnerable genomes. Commun Biol 2:244. https://doi.org/10.1038/s42003-019-0490-7
Hazzouri KM, Gros-Balthazard M, Flowers JM et al (2019) Genome-wide association mapping of date palm fruit traits. Nat Commun 10:4680. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-019-12604-9
Hidalgo-Pizango CG, Honorio Coronado EN, del Águila-Pasquel J et al (2022) Sustainable palm fruit harvesting as a pathway to conserve Amazon peatland forests. Nat Sustain 5:479–487. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-022-00858-z
Hirschberger P(2011) Global rattan trade: pressure on forest resources-analysis and challenges
Hoban S, Bruford M, D’Urban Jackson J et al (2020) Genetic diversity targets and indicators in the CBD post-2020 global Biodiversity Framework must be improved. Biol Conserv 248:108654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108654
Hoban S, Bruford MW, Funk WC et al (2021) Global commitments to conserving and monitoring genetic diversity are now necessary and feasible. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biab054. Bioscience
Husband BC, Schemske DW (1996) Evolution of the magnitude and timing of inbreeding depression in plants. Evolution 50:54–70. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1558-5646.1996.tb04472.x
Idohou R, Townsend Peterson A, Assogbadjo AE et al (2017) Identification of potential areas for wild palm cultivation in the Republic of Benin through remote sensing and ecological niche modeling. Genet Resour Crop Evol 64:1383–1393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-016-0443-7
INBAR (2019) Trade overview 2017: bamboo and Rattan commodities in the International Market. INBAR, Beijing
IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (2021) https://www.iucnredlist.org/search. Accessed 2 December 2021
Jestrow B, Peguero B, Jiménez F et al(2016) Genetic diversity and differentiation of the Critically Endangered Hispaniolan palm Coccothrinax jimenezii M.M. Mejía & R.G. García based on novel SSR markers. Biochem Syst Ecol 66:216–223. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bse.2016.04.013
Jupiter S, Mangubhai S, Kingsford RT (2014) Conservation of biodiversity in the Pacific Islands of Oceania: challenges and opportunities. Pac Conserv Biol 20:206–220. https://doi.org/10.1071/PC140206
Kelly M (2019) Adaptation to climate change through genetic accommodation and assimilation of plastic phenotypes. Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 374:20180176. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2018.0176
Klimova A, Hoffman JI, Gutierrez-Rivera JN et al (2017) Molecular genetic analysis of two native desert palm genera, Washingtonia and Brahea, from the Baja California Peninsula and Guadalupe Island. Ecol Evol 7:4919–4935. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3036
Kramer AT, Ison JL, Ashley MV, Howe HF (2008) The paradox of forest fragmentation genetics. Conserv Biol 22:878–885. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2008.00944.x
Lanes ÉCM, Motoike SY, Kuki KN et al (2016) Mating system and genetic composition of the macaw palm (Acrocomia aculeata): implications for breeding and genetic conservation programs. J Hered 107:527–536. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esw038
Leigh DM, Hendry AP, Vázquez-Domínguez E, Friesen VL (2019) Estimated six per cent loss of genetic variation in wild populations since the industrial revolution. Evol Appl 12:1505–1512. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12810
Leroy T, Louvet J-M, Lalanne C et al (2020) Adaptive introgression as a driver of local adaptation to climate in european white oaks. New Phytol 226:1171–1182. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.16095
Logan ML, Cox CL (2020) Genetic constraints, transcriptome plasticity, and the evolutionary response to climate change. Front Genet 11:1088. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2020.538226
Manee MM, Al-Shomrani BM, Al-Fageeh MB (2020) Genome-wide characterization of simple sequence repeats in Palmae genomes. Genes Genomics 42:597–608. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13258-020-00924-w
Manohara TN, Linto EL, Renuka C (2010) Diversity and conservation of palms in Andaman & Nicobar archipelago. Biodivers Conserv 19:3655–3666. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-010-9918-6
Martin D(2020) Impacts of ecological and evolutionary processes on patterns of genetic diversity and variation in a long-lived tropical palm, Oenocarpus bataua. PhD Thesis, Tulane University
Martins K, Gugger PF, Llanderal-Mendoza J et al (2018) Landscape genomics provides evidence of climate-associated genetic variation in mexican populations of Quercus rugosa. Evol Appl 11:1842–1858. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12684
Matesanz S, Gianoli E, Valladares F (2010) Global change and the evolution of phenotypic plasticity in plants. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1206:35–55. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05704.x
Mathew S, Abraham S (1994) The vanishing palms of the Andaman and Nicobar lslands, India. Principes 38:100–104
McMahon BJ, Teeling EC, Höglund J (2014) How and why should we implement genomics into conservation? Evol Appl 7:999–1007. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12193
Mehmud S, Kalita N, Roy H, Sahariah D (2021) Species distribution modelling of Calamus floribundus Griff. (Arecaceae) using Maxent in Assam. Acta Ecol Sin. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2021.10.005
Merilä J, Hendry AP (2014) Climate change, adaptation, and phenotypic plasticity: the problem and the evidence. Evol Appl 7:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/eva.12137
Montúfar R, Recalde A, Couvreur TLP (2020) High genetic diversity with low connectivity among Mauritia flexuosa (Arecaceae) stands from ecuadorean Amazonia. Biotropica 53:152–161. https://doi.org/10.1111/btp.12855
Morgan EJ, Kaiser-Bunbury CN, Edwards PJ et al (2017) Keeping it in the family: strong fine-scale genetic structure and inbreeding in Lodoicea maldivica, the largest-seeded plant in the world. Conserv Genet 18:1317–1329. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-017-0982-2
Moscoso V, Albernaz AL, de Salomão R P (2013) Niche modelling for twelve plant species (six timber species and six palm trees) in the Amazon region, using collection and field survey data. For Ecol Manage 310:652–662. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2013.08.064
Nadot S, Alapetite E, Baker WJ et al (2016) The palm family (Arecaceae): a microcosm of sexual system evolution. Bot J Linn Soc 182:376–388. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12440
Namoff S, Husby CE, Francisco-Ortega J et al (2010) How well does a botanical garden collection of a rare palm capture the genetic variation in a wild population? Biol Conserv 143:1110–1117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2010.02.004
Nazareno AG, dos Reis MS (2012) Linking phenology to mating system: exploring the reproductive biology of the threatened palm species Butia eriospatha. J Hered 103:842–852. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/ess070
Nazareno AG, dos Reis MS (2014) At risk of population decline? An ecological and genetic approach to the threatened palm species Butia eriospatha (arecaceae) of southern Brazil. J Hered 105:120–129. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/est065
Novello M, Viana JPG, Alves-Pereira A et al (2018) Genetic conservation of a threatened neotropical palm through community-management of fruits in agroforests and second-growth forests. For Ecol Manage 407:200–209. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foreco.2017.06.059
Palmweb(2021) Palmweb: Palms of the World Online. http://palmweb.org/. Accessed 20 May 2021
Peñaloza-Ramírez JM, Aguilar-Amezquita B, Núñez-Farfán J et al (2016) Consequences of habitat fragmentation on genetic structure of Chamaedorea alternans (Arecaceae) palm populations in the tropical rain forests of Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, Mexico. Rev Mex Biodivers 87:990–1001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rmb.2016.07.004
Priya K, Indira EP, Sreekumar VB, Renuka C (2016) Assessment of genetic diversity in Calamus vattayila Renuka (Arecaceae) using ISSR markers. J Bamboo Ratt 15:61–69
Rakotoarinivo M, Dransfield J, Bachman SP et al (2014) Comprehensive red list assessment reveals exceptionally high extinction risk to Madagascar palms. PLoS ONE 9:e106619. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0106619
Rakotoarinivo M, Andriambololonera S, Beentje H et al (2020) Strategy for the conservation and sustainable use of the Palms of Madagascar. International Palm Society, Inc
Razgour O, Forester B, Taggart JB et al (2019) Considering adaptive genetic variation in climate change vulnerability assessment reduces species range loss projections. Proc Natl Acad Sci 116:10418–10423. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1820663116
Rey O, Eizaguirre C, Angers B et al (2020) Linking epigenetics and biological conservation: towards a conservation epigenetics perspective. Funct Ecol 34:414–427. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13429
Rodríguez-Peña RA, Jestrow B, Cinea W et al (2014) Conservation and genetics of two critically endangered Hispaniolan palms: genetic erosion of Pseudophoenix lediniana in contrast to P. ekmanii. Plant Syst Evol 300:2019–2027. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00606-014-1028-6
Sanín MJ, Zapata P, Pintaud J-C et al (2017) Up and down the blind alley: population divergence with scant gene flow in an endangered tropical lineage of Andean palms (Ceroxylon quindiuense Clade: Ceroxyloideae). J Hered 108:288–298. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esx006
Santos AS, Cazetta E, Morante Filho JC et al (2015) Lessons from a palm: genetic diversity and structure in anthropogenic landscapes from Atlantic Forest, Brazil. Conserv Genet 16:1295–1302. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-015-0740-2
Santos AS, Cazetta E, Dodonov P et al (2016) Landscape-scale deforestation decreases gene flow distance of a keystone tropical palm, Euterpe edulis Mart (Arecaceae). Ecol Evol 6:6586–6598. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.2341
Scariot A, Lleras E, Hay JD (1991) Reproductive biology of the Palm Acrocomia aculeata in Central Brazil. Biotropica 23:12–22. https://doi.org/10.2307/2388683
Scariot A (1999) Forest fragmentation effects on palm diversity in central Amazonia. J Ecol 87:66–76. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2745.1999.00332.x
Schrey AW, Alvarez M, Foust CM et al (2013) Ecological epigenetics: beyond MS-AFLP. Integr Comp Biol 53:340–350. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/ict012
Shafer ABA, Wolf JBW, Alves PC et al (2015) Genomics and the challenging translation into conservation practice. Trends Ecol Evol 30:78–87. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2014.11.009
Shapcott A, Rakotoarinivo M, Smith RJ et al (2007) Can we bring Madagascar’s critically endangered palms back from the brink? Genetics, ecology and conservation of the critically endangered palm Beccariophoenix madagascariensis. Bot J Linn Soc 154:589–608. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2007.00676.x
Shapcott A, Quinn J, Rakotoarinivo M, Dransfield J (2012b) Contrasting patterns of genetic diversity between two endangered palms with overlapping distributions, Voanioala gerardii (Arecoideae) and Lemurophoenix halleuxii (Arecoideae), from North-east Madagascar. Conserv Genet 13:1393–1408. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-012-0382-6
Shapcott A, James H, Simmons L et al (2020) Population modelling and genetics of a critically endangered madagascan palm Tahina spectabilis. Ecol Evol 10:3120–3137. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.6137
Shaw RG, Etterson JR (2012) Rapid climate change and the rate of adaptation: insight from experimental quantitative genetics. New Phytol 195:752–765. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-8137.2012.04230.x
Simmons CL, Auld TD, Hutton I et al (2012) Will climate change, genetic and demographic variation or rat predation pose the greatest risk for persistence of an altitudinally distributed. Island endemic? Biol 1:736–765. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology1030736
Soares LASS, Cazetta E, Santos LR et al (2019) Anthropogenic disturbances eroding the genetic diversity of a threatened palm tree: a multiscale approach. Front Genet 10:1090. https://doi.org/10.3389/fgene.2019.01090
de Souza AC, Prevedello JA (2021) Climate change and biological invasion as additional threats to an imperiled palm. Perspect Ecol Conserv 19:216–224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecon.2021.02.003
Stenseth NC, Dunlop ES (2009) Unnatural selection. Nature 457:803–804. https://doi.org/10.1038/457803a
Sugai K, Watanabe S, Kuishi T et al (2016) Extremely low genetic diversity of the northern limit populations of Nypa fruticans (Arecaceae) on Iriomote Island, Japan. Conserv Genet 17:221–228. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10592-015-0773-6
Supple MA, Shapiro B (2018) Conservation of biodiversity in the genomics era. Genome Biol 19:131. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13059-018-1520-3
Teixeira JC, Huber CD (2021) The inflated significance of neutral genetic diversity in conservation genetics. Proc Natl Acad Sci 118:e2015096118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2015096118
Thiebaut F, Hemerly AS, Ferreira PCG (2019) A role for epigenetic regulation in the adaptation and stress responses of non-model plants. Front Plant Sci 10:246. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00246
Tisné S, Pomiès V, Riou V et al (2017) Identification of Ganoderma disease resistance loci using natural field infection of an oil palm multiparental population. G3. Genes Genomes Genetics 7:1683–1692. https://doi.org/10.1534/g3.117.041764
Tomlinson PB (2006) The uniqueness of palms. Bot J Linn Soc 151:5–14. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8339.2006.00520.x
Träger S, Rellstab C, Reinula I et al (2021) The effect of recent habitat change on genetic diversity at putatively adaptive and neutral loci in Primula veris in semi-natural grasslands. https://doi.org/10.1101/2021.05.12.442254. bioRxiv 2021.05.12.442254; doi
Traveset A, González-Varo JP, Valido A (2012) Long-term demographic consequences of a seed dispersal disruption. Proc R Soc B Biol Sci 279:3298–3303. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2012.0535
Tregidgo D, Campbell AJ, Rivero S et al (2020) Vulnerability of the Açaí Palm to climate change. Hum Ecol 48:505–514. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-020-00172-2
Trenti M, Lorenzi S, Bianchedi PL et al (2021) Candidate genes and SNPs associated with stomatal conductance under drought stress in Vitis. BMC Plant Biol 21:7. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-020-02739-z
Valladares F, Matesanz S, Guilhaumon F et al (2014) The effects of phenotypic plasticity and local adaptation on forecasts of species range shifts under climate change. Ecol Lett 17:1351–1364. https://doi.org/10.1111/ele.12348
Vallejo MI, Galeano G, Valderrama N, Bernal R (2016) Consumers, the market and the socio-ecological background of Euterpe oleracea palm heart production in Colombia. Bot J Linn Soc 182:526–535. https://doi.org/10.1111/boj.12451
Velazco SJE, Svenning J-C, Ribeiro BR, Laureto LMO (2021) On opportunities and threats to conserve the phylogenetic diversity of neotropical palms. Divers Distrib 27:512–523. https://doi.org/10.1111/ddi.13215
Vranckx Guy, Jacquemyn H, Muys B, Honnay O (2012) Meta-analysis of susceptibility of woody plants to loss of genetic diversity through habitat fragmentation. Conserv Biol 26:228–237. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2011.01778.x
Walther G-R, Gritti ES, Berger S et al (2007) Palms tracking climate change. Glob Ecol Biogeogr 16:801–809. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00328.x
Wang T, Wang Z, Xia F, Su Y (2016) Local adaptation to temperature and precipitation in naturally fragmented populations of Cephalotaxus oliveri, an endangered conifer endemic to China. Sci Rep 6:25031. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep25031
Werner O, Prudencio ÁS, de la Cruz-Martínez E et al (2020) A cost reduced variant of epi-genotyping by sequencing for studying dna methylation in non-model organisms. Front Plant Sci 11:694. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.00694
Wright SJ, Zeballos H, Domínguez I et al (2000) Poachers alter Mammal abundance, seed dispersal, and seed predation in a Neotropical Forest. Conserv Biol 14:227–239. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.98333.x
Xia W, Luo T, Zhang W et al (2019) Development of high-density snp markers and their application in evaluating genetic diversity and population structure in Elaeis guineensis. Front Plant Sci 10:130. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00130
Zalapa JE, Cuevas H, Zhu H et al (2012) Using next-generation sequencing approaches to isolate simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci in the plant sciences. Am J Bot 99:193–208. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.1100394
Zhao W, Sun Y-Q, Pan J et al (2020) Effects of landscapes and range expansion on population structure and local adaptation. New Phytol 228:330–343. https://doi.org/10.1111/nph.16619
Zona S, Henderson A (1989) A review of animal-mediated seed dispersal of palms. Selbyana 11:6–21
Zona S, Verdecia R, Leiva Sánchez A et al (2007) The conservation status of west indian palms (Arecaceae). Oryx 41:300–305. https://doi.org/. DOI
Acknowledgements
The financial support received from Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India (GOI) is gratefully acknowledged. SP thanks DBT, GOI for the award of Junior Research Fellowship (JRF).
Funding
The study was funded by Department of Biotechnology (DBT), Government of India (No. BT/ PR 29212/ FCB/ 125/ 14/ 2018, 21.02.2019).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
The first draft of the review article was written by Sarath Paremmal and SAD commented and edited the previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interests.
Additional information
Communicated by Daniel Sanchez Mata.
Publisher’s Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Sarath, P., Dev, S.A., Sreekumar, V. et al. Anthropogenic threats and habitat degradation challenge the conservation of palm genetic resources—an appraisal of current status, threats and look-ahead strategies. Biodivers Conserv 32, 417–437 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-022-02512-8
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-022-02512-8