This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Data Availability
Available upon request.
Notes
Although such an analysis is inconsistent with a number of best practice recommendations for the selection of control variables (Becker et al., 2016; Bernerth & Aguinis, 2016; Carlson & Wu, 2012), we also note that the negative pornography-sexual satisfaction association maintained in the NSSHB (partial r = -0.07, p = 0.003) and NSPRSS (partial r = -0.10, p = 0.011) when all of the hypothesized confounds were simultaneously adjusted for.
References
Baer, J. L., Kohut, T., & Fisher, W. A. (2015). Is pornography use associated with anti-woman sexual aggression? Re-examining the confluence model with third variable considerations. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 24(2), 160–173. https://doi.org/10.3138/cjhs.242-A6
Becker, T. E. (2005). Potential problems in the statistical control of variables in organizational research: A qualitative analysis with recommendations. Organizational Research Methods, 8(3), 274–289. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428105278021
Becker, T. E., Atinc, G., Breaugh, J. A., Carlson, K. D., Edwards, J. R., & Spector, P. E. (2016). Statistical control in correlational studies: 10 essential recommendations for organizational researchers. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 37(2), 157–167. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.2053
Bennett-Brown, M., & Wright, P. J. (2022). Pornography consumption and partnered sex: A review of pornography use and satisfaction in romantic relationships. Current Addiction Reports, 9, 109–113. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40429-022-00412-z
Bernerth, J. B., & Aguinis, H. (2016). A critical review and best-practice recommendations for control variable usage. Personnel Psychology, 69(1), 229–283. https://doi.org/10.1111/peps.12103
Bothe, B., Tóth-Király, I., Bella, N., Potenza, M. N., Demetrovics, Z., & Orosz, G. (2021). Why do people watch pornography? The motivational basis of pornography use. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 35(2), 172–186. https://doi.org/10.1037/adb0000603
Bouffard, L. A. (2010). Exploring the utility of entitlement in understanding sexual aggression. Journal of Criminal Justice, 38(5), 870–879. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2010.06.002
Burke, T. J., & Young, V. J. (2012). Sexual transformations and intimate behaviors in romantic relationships. Journal of Sex Research, 49(5), 454–463. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.569977
Bushman, B. J., & Anderson, C. A. (2023). Solving the puzzle of null violent media effects. Psychology of Popular Media, 12(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000361
Byers, E. S. (2005). Relationship satisfaction and sexual satisfaction: A longitudinal study of individuals in long-term relationships. Journal of Sex Research, 42(2), 113–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490509552264
Carlson, K. D., & Wu, J. (2012). The illusion of statistical control: Control variable practice in management research. Organizational Research Methods, 15(3), 413–435.
Carvalheira, A., Traeen, B., & Stulhofer, A. (2015). Masturbation and pornography use among coupled heterosexual men with decreased sexual desire: How many roles of masturbation? Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 41(6), 626–635. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2014.958790
Charig, R., Moghaddam, N. G., Dawson, D. L., Merdian, H. L., & Das Nair, R. (2020). A lack of association between online pornography exposure, sexual functioning, and mental well-being. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 35(2), 258–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2020.1727874
Cooper, A. (1998). Sexuality and the Internet: Surfing into the new millennium. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 1(2), 187–193.
Cuffe, K. M., Newton-Levinson, A., Gift, T. L., McFarlane, M., & Leichliter, J. S. (2016). Sexually transmitted infection testing among adolescents and young adults in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 58(5), 512–519. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2016.01.002
Elliott, S., & Umberson, D. (2008). The performance of desire: Sexual negotiation in long-term marriages. Journal of Marriage and Family, 70(2), 391–406. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2008.00489.x
Fischer, N., & Træen, B. (2022). A seemingly paradoxical relationship between masturbation frequency and sexual satisfaction. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 51(6), 3151–3167. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-022-02305-8
Fisher, W. A., & Barak, A. (2001). Internet pornography: A social psychological perspective on Internet sexuality. Journal of Sex Research, 38(4), 312–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490109552102
Flynn, K. E., Lin, L., Bruner, D. W., Cyranowski, J. M., Hahn, E. A., Jeffery, D. D., Reese, J. B., Reeve, B. B., Shelby, R. A., & Weinfurt, K. P. (2016). Sexual satisfaction and the importance of sexual health to quality of life throughout the life course of US adults. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 13(11), 1642–1650. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.08.011
Frazier, P. A., Tix, A. P., & Barron, K. E. (2004). Testing moderator and mediator effects in counseling psychology research. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 51(1), 115–134. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.51.1.115
Gottman, J., & Gottman, J. (2023). An open letter on porn. https://www.gottman.com/blog/an-open-letter-on-porn/
Grubbs, J. B., Wright, P. J., Braden, A. L., Wilt, J. A., & Kraus, S. W. (2019). Internet pornography use and sexual motivation: A systematic review and integration. Annals of the International Communication Association, 43(2), 117–155. https://doi.org/10.1080/23808985.2019.1584045
Hald, G. M., Seaman, C., & Linz, D. (2014). Sexuality and pornography. In D. L. Tolman, L. M. Diamond, J. A. Bauermeister, W. H. George, J. G. Pfaus, & L. M. Ward (Eds.), APA handbook of sexuality and psychology, Vol. 2. Contextual approaches (pp. 3–35). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14194-001
Hayes, A. F., & Rockwood, N. J. (2020). Conditional process analysis: Concepts, computation, and advances in the modeling of the contingencies of mechanisms. American Behavioral Scientist, 64(1), 19–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764219859633
Heiman, J. R., Long, J. S., Smith, S. N., Fisher, W. A., Sand, M., & Rosen, R. C. (2011). Sexual satisfaction and relationship happiness in midlife and older couples in five countries. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40(1), 741–753. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-010-9703-3
Hendrick, S. S. (1988). A generic measure of relationship satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and Family, 50(1), 93–98. https://doi.org/10.2307/352430
Herbenick, D., Bowling, J., Fu, T. C., Dodge, B., Guerra-Reyes, L., & Sanders, S. (2017). Sexual diversity in the United States: Results from a nationally representative probability sample of adult women and men. PLoS ONE, 12(7), e0181198. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0181198
Leonhardt, N. D., Spencer, T. J., Butler, M. H., & Theobald, A. C. (2019). An organizationalframework for sexual media’s influence on short-term versus long-term sexual quality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 48(8), 2233–2249. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-018-1209-4
Malamuth, N. M., & Billings, V. (1984). Why pornography? Models of functions and effects. Journal of Communication, 34(3), 117–129. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1984.tb02179.x
Meehl, P. (1971). High school yearbooks: A reply to Schwarz. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 77(2), 143–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0030750
Paul, B., & Shim, J. W. (2008). Gender, sexual affect, and motivations for Internet pornography use. International Journal of Sexual Health, 20(3), 187–199. https://doi.org/10.1080/19317610802240154
Perry, S. L. (2020). Is the link between pornography use and relational happiness really more about masturbation? Results from two national surveys. Journal of Sex Research, 57(1), 64–76. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2018.1556772
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2009). Adolescents’ exposure to sexually explicit internetmaterial and sexual satisfaction: A longitudinal study. Human Communication Research, 35(1), 171–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2958.2009.01343.x
Peter, J., & Valkenburg, P. M. (2011). The influence of sexually explicit internet material and peers on stereotypical beliefs about women’s sexual roles: Similarities and differences between adolescents and adults. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 14(9), 511–517. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0189
Price-Robertson, R., Baxter, J., & Mathews, S. (2017). Longitudinal associations betweenfathers’ mental health and the quality of their coparenting relationships. Clinical Psychologist, 21, 215–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/cp.12072
Prot, S., & Anderson, C. A. (2013). Research methods, design, and statistics in mediapsychology. In K. Dill (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of media psychology (pp. 109–136). Oxford University Press.
Rosen, R. C., Riley, A., Wagner, G., Osterloh, I. H., Kirkpatrick, J., & Mishra, A. (1997). The International Index of Erectile Function (IIEF): A multidimensional scale for assessment of erectile dysfunction. Urology, 49, 822–830. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0090-4295(97)00238-0
Rosen, C., Brown, J., Heiman, S., Leiblum, C., Meston, R., Shabsigh, D., Ferguson, R., & D’Agostino, R. (2000). The Female Sexual Function Index (FSFI): A multidimensional self-report instrument for the assessment of female sexual function. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 26, 191–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/009262300278597
Schisterman, E. F., Cole, S. R., & Platt, R. W. (2009). Overadjustment bias and unnecessary adjustment in epidemiologic studies. Epidemiology, 20(4), 488–495. https://doi.org/10.1097/EDE.0b013e3181a819a1
Simons, L. G., Simons, R. L., Lei, M. K., & Sutton, T. E. (2012). Exposure to harsh parenting and pornography as explanations for males’ sexual coercion. Violence and Victims, 27(3), 378–395. https://doi.org/10.1891/0886-6708.27.3.378
Slater, M. D. (2015). Reinforcing spirals model: Conceptualizing the relationship between media content exposure and the development and maintenance of attitudes. Media Psychology, 18(3), 370–395. https://doi.org/10.1080/15213269.2014.897236
Spector, P. E., & Brannick, M. T. (2011). Methodological urban legends: The misuse of statistical control variables. Organizational Research Methods, 14(2), 287–305. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428110369842
Sprecher, S., & Cate, R. (2004). Sexual satisfaction and sexual expression as predictors of relationship satisfaction and stability. In J. H. Harvey, A. Wenzel, & S. Sprecher (Eds.), The handbook of sexuality in close relationships (pp. 235–256). Erlbaum.
Sutton, K. S., Stratton, N., Pytyck, J., Kolla, N. J., & Cantor, J. M. (2015). Patient characteristics by type of hypersexuality referral: A quantitative chart review of 115 consecutive male cases. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 41(6), 563–580. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2014.935539
Tokunaga, R. S., Wright, P. J., & Roskos, J. E. (2019). Pornography and impersonal sex. Human Communication Research, 45(1), 78–118. https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/hqy014
Tokunaga, R. S., Wright, P. J., & Vangeel, L. (2020). Is pornography consumption a risk factor for condomless sex? Human Communication Research, 46(2–3), 273–299. https://doi.org/10.1093/hcr/hqaa005
Townes, A., Thorpe, S., Parmer, T., Wright, B., & Herbenick, D. (2022). Partnered sexual behaviors, pleasure, and orgasms at last sexual encounter: Findings from a US probability sample of black women ages 18 to 92 years. Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy, 47(4), 353–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2021.1878315
van Oosten, J. M., Peter, J., & Vandenbosch, L. (2017). Adolescents’ sexual media use and willingness to engage in casual sex: Differential relations and underlying processes. Human Communication Research, 43(1), 127–147. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12098
Weinberg, M. S., Williams, C. J., Kleiner, S., & Irizarry, Y. (2010). Pornography, normalization, and empowerment. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39(1), 1389–1401. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9592-5
Willoughby, B. J., Leonhardt, N. D., & Augustus, R. A. (2021). Curvilinear associations between pornography use and relationship satisfaction, sexual satisfaction, and relationship stability in the United States. Computers in Human Behavior, 125, 106966. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.106966
Wright, P. J. (2020a). Pornography and sexual behavior: Do sexual attitudes mediate or confound? Communication Research, 47(3), 451–475. https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650218796363
Wright, P. J. (2020b). Media and sexuality. In M. B. Oliver, A. A. Raney, & J. Bryant (Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 227–242). Routledge.
Wright, P. J. (2021). Overcontrol in pornography research: Let it go, let it go… [Letter to the Editor]. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 50(2), 387–392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508020-01902-9
Wright, P. J. (2022). Pornography, white men, and relational satisfaction [Letter-to-the Editor]. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 51(8), 3665–3667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-022-02420-6
Wright, P. J., & Herbenick, D. (2022). Pornography and relational satisfaction: Exploring potential boundary conditions. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 51(1), 3839–3846. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-022-02406-4
Wright, P. J., & Tokunaga, R. S. (2023). On the use of control variables in pornography effects research: A longitudinal conceptual replication. Health Communication, 38(3), 618–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2022.2114762
Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R. S., Kraus, A., & Klann, E. (2017). Pornography consumption and satisfaction: A meta-analysis. Human Communication Research, 43, 315–343. https://doi.org/10.1111/hcre.12108
Wright, P. J., Sun, C., Steffen, N. J., & Tokunaga, R. S. (2019). Associative pathways between pornography consumption and reduced sexual satisfaction. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 34(4), 422–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2017.1323076
Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R., & Herbenick, D. (2022a). Pornography, masturbation, and relational satisfaction [Letter to the Editor]. Journal of Sex Research. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2022.2131705
Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R. S., Herbenick, D., & Paul, B. (2022b). To misspecify is common, to probe misspecification scientific: Common “confounds” in pornography research may actually be predictors. Journal of Communication, 72(3), 429–447. https://doi.org/10.1093/joc/jqac012
Wright, P. J., Tokunaga, R., & Herbenick, D. (2023). But do porn sites get more traffic than TikTok, OpenAI, and Zoom? Journal of Sex Research, 60(6), 763–767. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2023.2220690
Zillmann, D., & Bryant, J. (1988). Pornography’s impact on sexual satisfaction. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18(1), 438–453. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.15591816.1988.tb00027.x
Funding
The authors are grateful to the following for their generous support of the NSPRSS: Julie Parker Benello, Abigail E. Disney, Natasha and David Dolby, Embrey Family Foundation, The Fledgling Fund, Ruth Ann Harnisch and The Harnisch Foundation, Chandra Jessee, Suzanne Lerner, Cristina Ljungberg, Ann Lovell, Nion McEvoy, Regina K. Scully, Artemis Rising Foundation, Lindsey Taylor Wood, and Jacki Zehner. The NSSHB was supported by the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number R01HD102535 (MPIs Herbenick and Fu). The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflicts of interest
The authors have not disclosed any competing interests.
Ethical Approval
The institutional review board at the first and last authors’ university reviewed and approved study protocols and measures.
Informed Consent
Informed consent was obtained from all participants.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Wright, P.J., Tokunaga, R.S. & Herbenick, D. Model Specification in Media Effects Research. Arch Sex Behav 52, 3181–3188 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-023-02714-3
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-023-02714-3