Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Transgender Knowledge, Attitudes, and Beliefs (T-KAB) Scale for the Mexican Population

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Archives of Sexual Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Transphobia is a result of the widespread lack of knowledge among the general population, together with prejudice based on irrational fear and hatred, of those who do not fit the dominant, socially established gender categories. Little is known about transgender-related knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs among the Mexican population, due to the lack of reliable, valid Spanish-language instruments. This study presents a Spanish translation of the Transgender Knowledge, Attitudes, and Beliefs (T-KAB) Scale and examines its psychometric properties for the Mexican population. A cohort of 501 adult subjects, 337 (67.3%) women and 161 (32.1%) men, drawn from the general population, answered the T-KAB in an anonymous online survey. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and internal consistency measure were used to determine whether its dimensions were reliable and valid for use in a Mexican Spanish language and cultural context. A CFA including the three original dimensions proposed and excluding one item from the T-KAB Scale showed appropriate goodness of fit indices (χ2(180) = 389.41; χ2/df = 2.16, RMSEA = 0.048, CI [0.042, 0.055]; CFI = 0.971; TLI = 0.966), with Cronbach’s alpha values over 0.85. The psychometric properties exhibited by the Spanish version of the T-KAB support its use for the assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs regarding transgender people in the Mexican cultural context. This instrument offers researchers a brief, reliable, valid, and easy self-report measure to use in further studies in Spanish-speaking populations.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Availability of Data and Material

The data are not publicly available due to ethical restrictions, as it contains information that could compromise the privacy of research participants.

References

  • Alonso-Martínez, L., Heras-Sevilla, D., Fernández-Hawrylak, M., & Forrest, S. (2021). English validation of a short scale designed to detect negative attitudes towards trans people (EANT). Sustainability, 13(7), 3760. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13073760

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Amnesty International (2005). Stone walled: Police abuse and misconduct against lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people in the US. Amnesty International Publications.

  • Berredo, L., Arcon, A., Gómez Regalado, A., Honorée, C., McLean, N., Mejri, I., & Toelupe, V. (2018). Global trans perspectives on health and wellbeing: TvT community report. Transrespect versus Transphobia Worldwide Project. TGEU.

  • Bockting, W. (2014). The impact of stigma on transgender identity development and mental health. In B. P. C. Kreukels, T. D. Steensma, & A. L. C. de Vries (Eds.), Gender dysphoria and disorders of sex development: Progress in care and knowledge (pp. 319–330). Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bradford, J., Reisner, S. L., Honnold, J. A., & Xavier, J. (2013). Experiences of transgender-related discrimination and implications for health: Results from the virginia transgender health initiative study. American Journal of Public Health, 103(10), 1820–1829. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2012.300796

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brohan, E., Slade, M., Clement, S., & Thornicroft, G. (2010). Experiences of mental illness stigma, prejudice and discrimination: A review of measures. BMC Health Services Research, 10(1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6963-10-80

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, T. A. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied sciences. The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Burnes, T. R., Singh, A. A., Harper, A. J., Harper, B., Maxon-Kann, W., Pickering, D. L., & Hosea, J. U. L. I. A. (2010). American Counseling Association: Competencies for counseling with transgender clients. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 4(3–4), 135–159. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2010.524839

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carrera-Fernández, M. V., Lameiras-Fernández, M., Rodríguez-Castro, Y., & Vallejo-Medina, P. (2014). Spanish adolescents’ attitudes toward transpeople: Proposal and validation of a short form of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale. Journal of Sex Research, 51(6), 654–666. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2013.773577

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cerezo, A., Morales, A., Quintero, D., & Rothman, S. (2014). Trans migrations: Exploring life at the intersection of transgender identity and immigration. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1(2), 170–180. https://doi.org/10.1037/sgd0000031

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clark, K. A., & Hughto, J. M. (2020). Development and psychometric evaluation of the Transgender Knowledge, Attitudes, and Beliefs (T-KAB) scale. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 17(3), 353–363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-019-00399-9

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Constant, C. (2017). Cuerpos abyectos y poder disciplinario: la violencia familiar y laboral contra mujeres transexuales en México. Trace. Travaux et recherches dans les Amériques du Centre, 72.

  • Cruz, T. M. (2014). Assessing access to care for transgender and gender-nonconforming people: A consideration of diversity in combating discrimination. Social Science & Medicine, 110, 65–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2014.03.032

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • da Silva, C. E., Smith, L. R., Patterson, T. L., Semple, S. J., Harvey-Vera, A., Nunes, S., & Pines, H. A. (2020). Stigma and web-based sex seeking among men who have sex with men and transgender women in Tijuana, Mexico: cross-sectional study. JMIR Public Health and Surveillance, 6(1), e14803. https://doi.org/10.2196/14803

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Domínguez-Martínez, T., Robles García, R., Fresán, A., Vega, H., Cruz, J., Rodríguez Pérez, V., & Reed, J. M. (2020). Risk factors for violence in transgender people: A retrospective study of experiences during adolescence. Psychology & Sexuality. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2020.1802772

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hatcher, L. (1994). A step-by-step approach to using the SAS system for factor analysis and structural equation modeling. SAS Institute Inc.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hill, D. B., & Willoughby, B. L. (2005). The development and validation of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale. Sex Roles, 53(7), 531–544. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-005-7140-x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughto, J. M. W., Reisner, S. L., & Pachankis, J. E. (2015). Transgender stigma and health: A critical review of stigma determinants, mechanisms, and interventions. Social Science & Medicine, 147, 222–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jami, H., & Kamal, A. (2015). Measuring attitudes toward hijras in Pakistan: Gender and religiosity in perspective. Pakistan Journal of Psychological Research, 30(1), 151–187.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johns, R. (2005). One size doesn’t fit all: Selecting response scales for attitude items. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion & Parties, 15, 237–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/13689880500178849

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, M. E. (2008). Transprejudice in Hong Kong: Chinese attitudes towards transgenderism and transgender civil rights. HKU Theses Online. https://doi.org/10.5353/th_b3984880

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leyva, R., Infante, C. (2019). Una mirada a la violencia hacia los migrantes. Gaceta Instituto Nacional de Salud Pública, 4: 21–23. Retrieved from https://www.insp.mx/gaceta-insp/vol-9.html.

  • Lombardi, E. L., Wilchins, R. A., & Priesing, D. (2001). Gender violence: Transgender experiences with violence and discrimination. Journal of Homosexuality, 42(1), 89–101. https://doi.org/10.1300/J082v42n01_05

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lozano-Verduzco, I., & Melendez, R. (2019). Transgender individuals in Mexico: Exploring characteristics and experiences of discrimination and violence. Psychology & Sexuality. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2019.1698449

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Martínez-Guzmán, A., & Johnson, K. (2021). Narratives of transphobic violence in the Mexican province of Colima: A psychosocial analysis. International Journal of Transgender Health, 22, 253–268.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Molina Rodriguez, N. E., Guzman Cervantes, O. O., & Martinez-Guzman, A. (2015). Transgender identities and transphobia in the Mexican context: A narrative approach. Quadernos de Psicología, 17(3), 71–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morrison, M. A., Bishop, C., Gazzola, S. B., McCutcheon, J. M., Parker, K., & Morrison, T. G. (2017). Systematic review of the psychometric properties of transphobia scales. International Journal of Transgenderism, 18(4), 395–410. https://doi.org/10.1080/15532739.2017.1332535

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Páez, J., Hevia, G., Pesci, F., & Rabbia, H. H. (2015). Construcción y validación de una escala de actitudes negativas hacia personas trans. Revista de Psicología (PUCP), 33(1), 153–190.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Robles, R., Fresán, A., Vega-Ramírez, H., Cruz-Islas, J., Rodríguez-Pérez, V., Domínguez-Martínez, T., & Reed, G. M. (2016). Removing transgender identity from the classification of mental disorders: A Mexican field study for ICD-11. The Lancet Psychiatry, 3(9), 850–859. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(16)30165-1

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steffens, M. C., Jonas, K. J., & Denger, L. (2015). Male role endorsement explains negative attitudes toward lesbians and gay men among students in Mexico more than in Germany. Journal of Sex Research, 52(8), 898–911. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2014.966047

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stotzer, R. L. (2009). Violence against transgender people: A review of United States data. Aggression & Violent Behavior, 14(3), 170–179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2009.01.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tebbe, E. A., Moradi, B., & Ege, E. (2014). Revised and abbreviated forms of the Genderism and Transphobia Scale: Tools for assessing anti-trans* prejudice. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 61(4), 581. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000043

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thornicroft, G., Rose, D., Kassam, A., & Sartorius, N. (2007). Stigma: Ignorance, prejudice, or discrimination? The British Journal of Psychiatry, 190(3), 192–193. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.106.025791

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Toomey, R. B., Ryan, C., Diaz, R. M., Card, N. A., & Russell, S. T. (2010). Gender nonconforming lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender youth: School victimization and youth-adult psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 46(6), 1580–1589. https://doi.org/10.1037/2329-0382.1.S.71

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Transgender Law Center (2016). Report on Human Rights Conditions of Transgender Women in Mexico. https://transgenderlawcenter.org/resources/immigration/human-rights-mexico.

  • U.S. Census Bureau (2010). Census bureau guideline: Language translation of data collection instruments and supporting materials. Methodology and Standards Directorate, U.S. Census Bureau.

  • Valencia, S., & Zhuravleva, O. A. (2019). Necropolitics, postmortem/transmortem politics, and transfeminisms in the sexual economies of death. Transgender Studies Quarterly, 6(2), 180–193. https://doi.org/10.1215/23289252-7348468

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verduzco, I. L., & Sánchez, T. E. R. (2011). La homofobia y su relación con la masculinidad hegemónica en México. Revista Puertorriqueña de Psicología, 22(1), 5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wernick, L. J., Kulick, A., & Inglehart, M. H. (2014). Influences of peers, teachers, and climate on students’ willingness to intervene when witnessing anti-transgender harassment. Journal of Adolescence, 37(6), 927–935. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2014.06.008

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • West, S. G., Finch, J. F., & Curran, P. J. (1995). Structural equation models with nonnormal variables: Problems and remedies. In R. H. Hoyle (Ed.), Structural equation modelling: Concepts, issues, and applications (pp. 56–75). Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • White Hughto, J. M., Murchison, G. R., Clark, K., Pachankis, J. E., & Reisner, S. L. (2016). Geographic and individual differences in healthcare access for US transgender adults: A multilevel analysis. LGBT Health, 3(6), 424–433. https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2016.0044

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

Download references

Funding

No funding was received for conducting this study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Laboratorio de Epidemiología Clínica. Subdirección de Investigaciones Clínicas, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, Mexico City, Mexico

    Ana Fresán

  2. Centro de Investigación en Salud Mental Global, Dirección de Investigaciones Epidemiológicas y Psicosociales, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, Calzada México Xochimilco # 101, Col. San Lorenzo Huipulco. Tlalpan, C.P. 14370, Mexico City, Mexico

    Tecelli Domínguez-Martínez & Rebeca Robles

  3. Dirección de Investigación, del Hospital Infantil de México Federico Gómez, Mexico City, Mexico

    María Fernanda Castilla-Peón

  4. Estudiante de Posgrado en Psicología con Residencia en Medicina Conductual, Facultad de Psicología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico

    Omar Hernández, Tania Vélez & Carolina Muñoz

Authors
  1. Ana Fresán
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tecelli Domínguez-Martínez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. María Fernanda Castilla-Peón
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Rebeca Robles
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Omar Hernández
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Tania Vélez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Carolina Muñoz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

Dr. Ana Fresán, Dr. Tecelli Domínguez-Martínez, and Dr. Maria Fernanda Castilla Peón contributed to the study conception and design. Survey design, material preparation, coordination of data collection, supervision of implementation, and study procedures were conducted by Dr. Tecelli Domínguez-Martínez. Analysis was performed by Dr. Ana Fresán. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Dr. Ana Fresán and Dr. Tecelli Domínguez-Martínez. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Tecelli Domínguez-Martínez.

Ethics declarations

Conflicts of interest

All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Ethical Approval

All study procedures and materials were approved by the Ethics and Research Committees of the ‘Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz’ National Institute of Psychiatry, in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Appendix

Appendix

Items in the Spanish version of the T-KAB

Acceptance of the Gender Spectrum

(1) Sexo y género son lo mismo.a,b

(Sex and gender are the same thing.)

(2) Sólo existen dos géneros: masculino y femenino.a

(There are only two genders: male and female.)

(11) A una persona en transición de hombre a mujer no se le debería permitir usar el baño de mujeres.a

(A person transitioning from male to female should not be able to use a women's bathroom.)

(12) Una persona con vagina no puede ser un hombre.a

(A person with a vagina cannot be a man.)

(18) Una persona con pene no puede ser una mujer.a

(A person with a penis cannot be a woman.)

(19) A una persona en transición de mujer a hombre no se le debería permitir usar el baño de hombresa

(A person transitioning from female to male should not be able to use a men's bathroom.)

(20) Las personas transgénero de mujer a hombre no son hombres realmentea

(Female-to-male transgender people are not real men.)

(22) Las personas transgénero de hombre a mujer no son mujeres realmentea

(Male-to-female transgender people are not real women.)

Social Tolerance

(3) Las personas transgénero son una parte valiosa de nuestra sociedad

(Transgender people are a worthwhile part of our society.)

(4) Las organizaciones que promueven los derechos de las personas transgénero son necesarias

(Organizations that promote transgender rights are necessary.)

(5) Las personas transgénero deberían tener la oportunidad de cambiar su nombre

(Transgender people should have the opportunity to change their name.)

(6) Las personas transgénero deberían ser completamente aceptadas en nuestra sociedad

(Transgender people should be accepted completely into our society.)

(7) Las personas transgénero deberían tener la oportunidad de operarse para modificar su anatomía

(Transgender people should have the opportunity to undergo operations to change their anatomy.)

(16). Ser transgénero es pecado.a

(Being transgender is a sin.)

(21). Debería ser ilegal que a las personas se les quiten quirúrgicamente sus genitales.a

(It should be illegal for people to have their genitalia surgically removed.)

Comfort and Contact

(8) Me sentiría cómodo/a si supiera que mi mejor amigo/a es transgénero

(I would feel comfortable if I learned my best friend was transgender.)

(9) Me sentiría cómodo/a si supiera que mi vecino/a es transgénero

(I would feel comfortable if I learned my neighbor was transgender.)

(10) Me siento incómodo/a cuando no puedo decir si alguien es hombre o mujer.a

(I feel uncomfortable when I cannot tell if someone is a man or a woman.)

(13) Me incomodan las personas que tienen tanto senos como pene.a

(People with both breasts and a penis make me uncomfortable.)

(14) Evito interactuar con personas cuyo género no es claro para mí.a

(I avoid interacting with people whose gender is unclear to me.)

(15) Me sentiría incómodo/a si un familiar cercano estuviera en una relación sentimental con una persona transgénero.a

(I would feel uncomfortable if a close family member were dating a transgender person.)

(17) Cuando conozco a alguien, es importante para mí poder identificarlo/a como hombre o mujer.a

(When I meet someone, it is important for me to be able to identify them as a man or a woman.)

  1. Notes: The item number in the original version of the T-KAB (Clark & Hughto, 2020) is shown in parentheses.
  2. Theoretical range for each item: Higher scores indicate greater knowledge and more accepting attitudes or beliefs toward transgender individuals.
  3. aReverse scored. bThis item was eliminated from the Spanish version of the T-KAB due to its low factor loading with the dimension “Acceptance of the Gender Spectrum.”

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Fresán, A., Domínguez-Martínez, T., Castilla-Peón, M.F. et al. Confirmatory Factor Analysis of the Transgender Knowledge, Attitudes, and Beliefs (T-KAB) Scale for the Mexican Population. Arch Sex Behav 51, 1959–1966 (2022). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-02259-3

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-021-02259-3

Keywords

Search

Navigation