Abstract
The manner in which individuals report their sexual attraction, self-label their sexual identity, or behave in sexual situations can vary over time, and particularly, adolescents may change their reported sexual attraction or sexual orientation identity over the course of their development. It is important to better understand the social factors that may influence these changes, such as one’s religiosity. The present study thus aimed to assess the fluidity of adolescent romantic and sexual attraction over time and to explore the role of religiosity in this dynamic using two independent panel samples of Croatian high school students (N = 849 and N = 995). Response items for sexual and romantic attraction were categorized based on the Kinsey scale, and religiosity was assessed with a standard one-item indicator. Results demonstrated that changes in attraction were substantially more prevalent among non-exclusively heterosexual participants compared to exclusively heterosexual participants in both panels. Although more female than male adolescents reported non-heterosexual attraction, gender differences in attraction fluidity were inconsistent. Religiosity was associated with initial sexual attraction (more religious individuals were more likely to report exclusively heterosexual attraction), but not with changes in romantic and sexual attraction over time. Given that the understanding of adolescent sexual development can play an important role in reducing their vulnerability to sexual risk taking, stigmatization, and abuse, this study’s findings have relevance for teachers, parents, and counselors working with adolescents, and in particular for sexual minority youth.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
For precision, the linear curve was specified in months. (In Rijeka, the period between data collection waves ranged from 4.5 to 6 months.)
More detailed information about attraction fluidity is available from the corresponding author.
Initially, the interaction of gender and religiosity was also included in the models (the two indicator were mean-centered before multiplication), but was omitted after failing to reach statistical significance in either panel. The models with the interaction term did not fit the data significantly better from the (more parsimonious) models presented in Figs. 2 and 3.
References
Anderton, C. L., Pender, D. A., & Asner-Self, K. K. (2011). A review of the religious identity/sexual orientation identity conflict literature: Revisiting Festinger’s cognitive dissonance theory. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 5, 259–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/15538605.2011.632745.
Austin, S. B., Conron, K., Patel, A., & Freedner, N. (2007). Making sense of sexual orientation measures: Findings from a cognitive processing study with adolescents on health survey questions. Journal of LGBT Health Research,3(1), 55–65.
Beaulieu-Prévost, D., & Fortin, M. (2015). The measurement of sexual orientation: Historical background and current practices. Sexologies,24(1), e15–e19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sexol.2014.05.006.
Bollen, K. A., & Curran, P. J. (2006). Latent curve models: A structural equation perspective. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Dahl, A. L., & Galliher, R. V. (2012). LGBTQ adolescents and young adults raised within a Christian religious context: Positive and negative outcomes. Journal of Adolescence,35(6), 1611–1618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.07.003.
Diamond, L. M. (2000). Sexual identity, attractions, and behavior among young sexual-minority women over a 2-year period. Developmental Psychology,36(2), 241–250. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.36.2.241.
Diamond, L. M. (2003). What does sexual orientation orient? A biobehavioral model distinguishing romantic love and sexual desire. Psychological Review,110(1), 173–192. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.110.1.173.
Diamond, L. M. (2008). Female bisexuality from adolescence to adulthood: Results from a 10-year longitudinal study. Developmental Psychology,44(1), 5–14. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.44.1.5.
Diamond, L. M. (2016). Sexual fluidity in male and females. Current Sexual Health Reports,8(4), 249–256.
Diamond, L. M., & Rosky, C. J. (2016). Scrutinizing immutability: Research on sexual orientation and US legal advocacy for sexual minorities. Journal of Sex Research,53(4–5), 363–391.
Diamond, L. M., & Savin-Williams, R. C. (2000). Explaining diversity in the development of same-sex sexuality among young women. Journal of Social Issues,56(2), 297–313. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00167.
Dickson, N., Paul, C., & Herbison, P. (2003). Same-sex attraction in a birth cohort: Prevalence and persistence in early adulthood. Social Science and Medicine,56(8), 1607–1615. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(02)00161-2.
Dickson, N., Van Roode, T., Cameron, C., & Paul, C. (2013). Stability and change in same-sex attraction, experience, and identity by sex and age in a New Zealand birth cohort. Archives of Sexual Behavior,42(5), 753–763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-0063-z.
Duncan, T. E., Duncan, S. C., & Strycker, L. A. (2011). An introduction to latent variable growth curve modeling. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203879962.
Everett, B. (2015). Sexual orientation identity change and depressive symptoms: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Health and Social Behavior,56(1), 37–58. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022146514568349.
Freese, J. (2007). Replication standards for quantitative social science: Why not sociology? Sociological Methods and Research,36(2), 153–172. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124107306659.
Friedman, M. S., Silvestre, A. J., Gold, M. A., Markovic, N., Savin-Williams, R. C., Huggins, J., & Sell, R. L. (2004). Adolescents define sexual orientation and suggest ways to measure it. Journal of Adolescence,27(3), 303–317.
Graham, J. W. (2012). Multiple imputation with norm 2.03. In J. W. Graham (Ed.), Missing data: Analysis and design (pp. 73–94). New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-4018-5_3.
Hodžić, A., & Štulhofer, A. (2017). Embryo, teddy bear-centaur and the constitution: Mobilizations against “gender ideology” and sexual permissiveness in Croatia. In R. Kuhar & D. Paternotte (Eds.), Anti-gender campaigns in Europe: Mobilizing against equality (pp. 59–78). London: Rowman & Littlefield.
Hu, Y., Xu, Y., & Tornello, S. L. (2016). Stability of self-reported same-sex and both-sex attraction from adolescence to young adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior,45(3), 651–659. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0541-1.
IOM (Institute of Medicine). (2011). The health of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender people: Building a foundation for better understanding. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Jerolimov, M. D., & Jokić, B. (2010). Religion and youth in Croatia. In G. Giordan (Ed.), Annual review of the sociology of religion: Youth and religion (Vol. 1, pp. 307–327). Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill.
Jones, R. N., Newsom, J. T., & Hofer, S. M. (Eds.). (2012). Longitudinal data analysis: A practical guide for researchers in aging, health, and social sciences (pp. 271–290). New York: Routledge.
Katz-Wise, S. L. (2015). Sexual fluidity in young adult women and men: Associations with sexual orientation and sexual identity development. Psychology and Sexuality,6(2), 189–208. https://doi.org/10.1080/19419899.2013.876445.
Katz-Wise, S. L., & Hyde, J. S. (2015). Sexual fluidity and related attitudes and beliefs among young adults with a same-gender orientation. Archives of Sexual Behavior,44(5), 1459–1470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0420-1.
Katz-Wise, S. L., Rosario, M., Calzo, J. P., Scherer, E. A., Sarda, V., & Austin, S. B. (2017). Endorsement and timing of sexual orientation developmental milestones among sexual minority young adults in the growing up today study. Journal of Sex Research,54(2), 172–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2016.1170757.
Kinnish, K. K., Strassberg, D. S., & Turner, C. W. (2005). Sex differences in the flexibility of sexual orientation: A multidimensional retrospective assessment. Archives of Sexual Behavior,34(2), 173–183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-005-1795-9.
Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Philadelphia: Saunders.
Koole, S. L., & Lakens, D. (2012). Rewarding replications: A sure and simple way to improve psychological science. Perspectives on Psychological Science,7(6), 608–614. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612462586.
Kuštreba, I., Elezović, I., & Štulhofer, A. (2015). Parents’ attitudes about school-based sex education in Croatia. Sexuality Research and Social Policy,12(4), 323–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-015-0203-z.
Levy, D. L., & Reeves, P. (2011). Resolving identity conflict: Gay, lesbian, and queer individuals with a Christian upbringing. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Social Services,23(1), 53–68. https://doi.org/10.1080/10538720.2010.530193.
Li, G., Pollitt, A. M., & Russell, S. T. (2016). Depression and sexual orientation during young adulthood: Diversity among sexual minority subgroups and the role of gender nonconformity. Archives of Sexual Behavior,45(3), 697–711. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-015-0515-3.
Little, T. D. (2013). Longitudinal structural equation modeling. New York: Guilford Press.
Luijkx, R., Halman, L., Sieben, I., Brislinger, E., & Quandt, M. (2016). European values in numbers. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004328525.
McArdle, J. J., & Grimm, K. J. (2010). Five steps in latent curve and latent change score modeling with longitudinal data. In K. van Montfort, J. Oud, & A. Sattora (Eds.), Longitudinal research with latent variables (pp. 245–273). New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-11760-2_8.
National Research Council. (2011). Reference manual on scientific evidence (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Olson, L. R., Cadge, W., & Harrison, J. T. (2006). Religion and public opinion about same-sex marriage. Social Science Quarterly,87(2), 340–360. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2006.00384.x.
Ott, M. Q., Corliss, H. L., Wypij, D., Rosario, M., & Austin, S. B. (2011). Stability and change in self-reported sexual orientation identity in young people: Application of mobility metrics. Archives of Sexual Behavior,40(3), 519–532. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-010-9691-3.
Page, M. J. L., Lindahl, K. M., & Malik, N. M. (2013). The role of religion and stress in sexual identity and mental health among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth. Journal of Research on Adolescence,23(4), 665–677. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12025.
Perrin, E. C. (2002). Sexual orientation in child and adolescent health care. New York: Springer.
Puzek, I., Štulhofer, A., & Božičević, I. (2012). Is religiosity a barrier to sexual and reproductive health? Results from a population-based study of young Croatian adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior,41(6), 1497–1505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9924-8.
Rosario, M., Schrimshaw, E. W., Hunter, J., & Braun, L. (2006). Sexual identity development among lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths: Consistency and change over time. Journal of Sex Research,43(1), 46–58. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490609552298.
Savin-Williams, R. C., & Cohen, K. M. (2007). Development of same-sex attracted youth. In I. Meyer & M. Northridge (Eds.), The health of sexual minorities (pp. 27–47). Boston: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-31334-4_2.
Savin-Williams, R. C., & Diamond, L. M. (2000). Sexual identity trajectories among sexual-minority youths: Gender comparisons. Archives of Sexual Behavior,29(6), 607–627. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1002058505138.
Savin-Williams, R. C., Joyner, K., & Rieger, G. (2012). Prevalence and stability of self-reported sexual orientation identity during young adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior,41, 103–110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-012-9913-y.
Savin-Williams, R. C., & Ream, G. L. (2007). Prevalence and stability of sexual orientation components during adolescence and young adulthood. Archives of Sexual Behavior,36(3), 385–394. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-006-9088-5.
Savin-Williams, R. C., & Vrangalova, Z. (2013). Mostly heterosexual as a distinct sexual orientation group: A systematic review of the empirical evidence. Developmental Review,33(1), 58–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2013.01.001.
Scheitle, C. P., & Wolf, J. K. (2018). Religion and sexual identity fluidity in a national three-wave panel of U.S. adults. Archives of Sexual Behavior,47(4), 1085–1094. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-0979-4.
Schmidt, S. (2009). Shall we really do it again? The powerful concept of replication is neglected in the social sciences. Review of General Psychology,13(2), 90–100. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015108.
Schuck, K. D., & Liddle, B. J. (2001). Religious conflicts experienced by lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. Journal of Gay and Lesbian Psychotherapy,5(2), 63–82. https://doi.org/10.1300/J236v05n02_07.
Shearer, A., Russon, J., Herres, J., Wong, A., Jacobs, C., Diamond, G. M., & Diamond, G. S. (2018). Religion, sexual orientation, and suicide attempts among a sample of suicidal adolescents. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior,48(4), 431–437. https://doi.org/10.1111/sltb.12372.
Steinberg, L., & Morris, A. S. (2001). Adolescent development. Annual Review of Psychology,52(1), 83–110. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.52.1.83.
Štulhofer, A., & Rimac, I. (2009). Determinants of homonegativity in Europe. Journal of Sex Research,46(1), 24–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490802398373.
Wood, A. W., & Conley, A. H. (2014). Loss of religious or spiritual identities among the LGBT population. Counseling and Values,59(1), 95–111. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-007X.2014.00044.x.
World Population Review (Croatia Population). (2018). Retrieved August 8, 2018, from http://worldpopulationreview.com/countries/croatia-population/.
Acknowledgements
The study has been funded by the Croatian Science foundation (Grant #9221). Additional funding was provided by Atlantic Grupa, d.d., Zagreb.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Ethical Approval and Informed Consent
The authors confirm that all relevant ethical safeguards have been met in relation to subject protection including informed consent and approval by the University of Zagreb IRB.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Cohen, N., Becker, I. & Štulhofer, A. Stability versus Fluidity of Adolescent Romantic and Sexual Attraction and the Role of Religiosity: A Longitudinal Assessment in Two Independent Samples of Croatian Adolescents. Arch Sex Behav 49, 1477–1488 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01713-y
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01713-y