Advertisement

Pornography Problems Due to Moral Incongruence: An Integrative Model with a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

  • Joshua B. GrubbsEmail author
  • Samuel L. Perry
  • Joshua A. Wilt
  • Rory C. Reid
Target Article
First Online:

Abstract

The notion of problematic pornography use remains contentious in both academic and popular literature. Although the mental health community at large is divided as to the addictive versus non-addictive nature of Internet pornography, substantial numbers of individuals report “feeling” as if their use of Internet pornography is problematic. The present work seeks to construct a model related to problematic pornography use that is clearly derived from empirical literature and that provides directions to be tested in future research. The focus of the present work is on those perceptions as they relate to the overarching experience of moral incongruence in pornography use, which is generally thought of as the experience of having one’s behaviors be inconsistent with one’s beliefs. To this end, we put forth a model of pornography problems due to moral incongruence. Within this model, we describe how pornography-related problems—particularly feelings of addiction to pornography—may be, in many cases, better construed as functions of discrepancies—moral incongruence—between pornography-related beliefs and pornography-related behaviors. A systematic review of literature and meta-analysis is conducted in order to evaluate support for this model, and the implications of this model for research and clinical practice are discussed.

Keywords

Pornography Addiction Morality Compulsive sexual behavior Religion ICD-11 DSM-5 
This is a preview of subscription content, log in to check access.

References

  1. Abell, J. W., Steenbergh, T. A., & Boivin, M. J. (2006). Cyberporn use in the context of religiosity. Journal of Psychology and Theology, 34, 165–171.Google Scholar
  2. Ahmad, Z. S., Thoburn, J., Perry, K. L., McBrearty, M., Olson, S., & Gunn, G. (2015). Prevalence rates of online sexual addiction among Christian clergy. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 22, 344–356.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2015.1082079.Google Scholar
  3. Barak, A., & Fisher, W. A. (2001). Toward an internet-driven, theoretically-based, innovative approach to sex education. Journal of Sex Research, 38, 324–332.Google Scholar
  4. Barak, A., & Fisher, W. A. (2002). The future of internet sexuality. In A. Cooper (Ed.), Sex and the internet: A guidebook for clinicians (pp. 263–280). New York: Brunner-Routledge.Google Scholar
  5. Barak, A., Fisher, W., Belfry, S., & Lashambe, D. (1999). Sex, guys, and cyberspace. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality, 11, 63–91.  https://doi.org/10.1300/J056v11n01_04.Google Scholar
  6. Blais-Lecours, S., Vaillancourt-Morel, M.-P., Sabourin, S., & Godbout, N. (2016). Cyberpornography: Time use, perceived addiction, sexual functioning, and sexual satisfaction. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 19, 649–655.  https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2016.0364.Google Scholar
  7. Bőthe, B., Tóth-Király, I., & Orosz, G. (2014). Clarifying the links among online gaming, internet use, drinking motives, and online pornography use. Games for Health Journal, 4, 107–112.  https://doi.org/10.1089/g4h.2014.0054.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  8. Bradley, D. F., Grubbs, J. B., Uzdavines, A., Exline, J. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2016). Perceived addiction to internet pornography among religious believers and nonbelievers. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 23, 225–243.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2016.1162237.Google Scholar
  9. Brand, M., Young, K. S., Laier, C., Wölfling, K., & Potenza, M. N. (2016). Integrating psychological and neurobiological considerations regarding the development and maintenance of specific Internet-use disorders: An Interaction of Person-Affect-Cognition-Execution (I-PACE) model. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 71, 252–266.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.033.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  10. Brandenburg, B. (2015). Power over pornography: The breakthrough formula for overcoming pornography addiction. North Charleston, SC: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.Google Scholar
  11. Brod, H. (1988). Pornography and the alienation of male sexuality. Social Theory and Practice, 14, 265–284.Google Scholar
  12. Byers, L. J., Menzies, K. S., & O’Grady, W. L. (2004). The impact of computer variables on the viewing and sending of sexually explicit material on the internet: Testing Cooper’s “Triple-A Engine”. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 13, 157–169.Google Scholar
  13. Campbell, L., & Kohut, T. (2017). The use and effects of pornography in romantic relationships. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13, 6–10.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. Carnes, P., Green, B., & Carnes, S. (2010). The same yet different: Refocusing the Sexual Addiction Screening Test (SAST) to reflect orientation and gender. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 17, 7–30.Google Scholar
  15. Carvalho, J., Štulhofer, A., Vieira, A. L., & Jurin, T. (2015). Hypersexuality and high sexual desire: Exploring the structure of problematic sexuality. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 12, 1356–1367.  https://doi.org/10.1111/jsm.12865.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  16. Cavaglion, G. (2008). Voices of coping in an Italian self-help virtual community of cyberporn dependents. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 11, 599–601.  https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.2007.0204.Google Scholar
  17. Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 155–159.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. Cohen, S., Kamarck, T., & Mermelstein, R. (1994). Perceived Stress Scale. Measuring stress: A guide for health and social scientists. Retrieved from http://mindgarden.com/documents/PerceivedStressScale.pdf.
  19. Cooper, A. (1998). Sexuality and the Internet: Surfing into the new millennium. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 1, 187–193.  https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.1998.1.187.Google Scholar
  20. Cooper, A., Delmonico, D. L., & Burg, R. (2000). Cybersex users, abusers, and compulsives: New findings and implications. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 7, 5–29.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720160008400205.Google Scholar
  21. Cooper, A., Putnam, D. E., Planchon, L. A., & Boies, S. C. (1999). Online sexual compulsivity: Getting tangled in the net. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 6, 79–104.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720169908400182.Google Scholar
  22. Covenant Eyes. (2017). Retrieved October 24, 2017, from http://www.covenanteyes.com/.
  23. Crosby, J. M., & Twohig, M. P. (2016). Acceptance and commitment therapy for problematic internet pornography use: A randomized trial. Behavior Therapy, 47, 355–366.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2016.02.001.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  24. Delmonico, D. L., & Carnes, P. J. (1999). Virtual sex addiction: When cybersex becomes the drug of choice. CyberPsychology & Behavior, 2, 457–463.  https://doi.org/10.1089/cpb.1999.2.457.Google Scholar
  25. Doran, K., & Price, J. (2014). Pornography and marriage. Journal of Family and Economic Issues, 35, 489–498.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10834-014-9391-6.Google Scholar
  26. Duffy, A., Dawson, D. L., & das Nair, R. (2016). Pornography addiction in adults: A systematic review of definitions and reported impact. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 13, 760–777.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.03.002.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  27. Edelman, B. (2009). Red light states: Who buys online adult entertainment? Journal of Economic Perspectives, 23, 209–220.Google Scholar
  28. Fernandez, D. P., Tee, E. Y. J., & Fernandez, E. F. (2017). Do Cyber Pornography Use Inventory-9 scores reflect actual compulsivity in internet pornography use? Exploring the role of abstinence effort. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 24, 156–179.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2017.1344166.Google Scholar
  29. Fight the New Drug. (2017). Retrieved October 24, 2017, from http://fightthenewdrug.org/.
  30. Fisher, W. A., & Barak, A. (2001). Internet pornography: A social psychological perspective on internet sexuality. Journal of Sex Research, 38, 312–323.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490109552102.Google Scholar
  31. Foubert, J. D. (2016). How pornography harms: Today’s research, scholarly perspectives, and real life stories. London: Taylor & Francis.Google Scholar
  32. Fradd, M. (2017). The porn myth: Exposing the reality behind the fantasy of pornography. San Francisco: Ignatius Press.Google Scholar
  33. Giordano, A. L., & Cashwell, C. S. (2017). Cybersex addiction among college students: A prevalence study. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 24, 47–57.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2017.1287612.Google Scholar
  34. Gola, M., Lewczuk, K., & Skorko, M. (2016a). What matters: Quantity or quality of pornography use? Psychological and behavioral factors of seeking treatment for problematic pornography use. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 13, 815–824.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.02.169.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. Gola, M., & Potenza, M. N. (2016). Paroxetine treatment of problematic pornography use: A case series. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 5, 529–532.  https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.5.2016.046.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  36. Gola, M., Wordecha, M., Sescousse, G., Lew-Starowicz, M., Kossowski, B., Wypych, M., & Marchewka, A. (2016b). Can pornography be addictive? An fMRI study of men seeking treatment for problematic pornography use. BioRxiv.  https://doi.org/10.1101/057083.Google Scholar
  37. Griffin, B. J., Worthington, E. L., Leach, J. D., Hook, J. N., Grubbs, J., Exline, J. J., & Davis, D. E. (2016). Sexual congruence moderates the associations of hypersexual behavior with spiritual struggle and sexual self-concept. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 23, 279–295.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2016.1150924.Google Scholar
  38. Grubbs, J. B., Exline, J. J., Pargament, K. I., Hook, J. N., & Carlisle, R. D. (2015a). Transgression as addiction: Religiosity and moral disapproval as predictors of perceived addiction to pornography. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 125–136.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0257-z.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  39. Grubbs, J. B., Exline, J. J., Pargament, K. I., Volk, F., & Lindberg, M. J. (2017a). Internet pornography use, perceived addiction, and religious/spiritual struggles. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 1733–1745.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0772-9.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  40. Grubbs, J. B., Hook, J. P., Griffin, B. J., Cushman, M. S., Hook, J. N., & Penberthy, J. K. (2017b). Treating hypersexuality. In Z. D. Peterson (Ed.), The Wiley handbook of sex therapy (pp. 115–128). Chichester: Wiley.Google Scholar
  41. Grubbs, J. B., Hook, J. N., Griffin, B. J., & Davis, D. E. (2015b). Evaluating outcome research for hypersexual behavior. Current Addiction Reports, 2, 207–213.Google Scholar
  42. Grubbs, J. B., & Perry, S. L. (2018). Moral incongruence and pornography use: A critical review and integration. Journal of Sex Research.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2018.1427204.Google Scholar
  43. Grubbs, J. B., Sessoms, J., Wheeler, D. M., & Volk, F. (2010). The Cyber-Pornography Use Inventory: The development of a new assessment instrument. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 17, 106–126.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720161003776166.Google Scholar
  44. Grubbs, J. B., Stauner, N., Exline, J. J., Pargament, K. I., & Lindberg, M. J. (2015c). Perceived addiction to Internet pornography and psychological distress: Examining relationships concurrently and over time. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors, 29, 1056.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  45. Grubbs, J. B., Volk, F., Exline, J. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2015d). Internet pornography use: Perceived addiction, psychological distress, and the validation of a brief measure. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 41, 83–106.  https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2013.842192.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. Grubbs, J. B., Wilt, J. A., Exline, J. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2018a). Predicting pornography use over time: Does self-reported “addiction” matter? Addictive Behaviors, 82, 57–64.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.02.028.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  47. Grubbs, J. B., Wilt, J. A., Exline, J. J., Pargament, K. I., & Kraus, S. W. (2018b). Moral disapproval and perceived addiction to internet pornography: A longitudinal examination. Addiction, 113, 496–506.  https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14007.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. Halpern, A. L. (2011). The proposed diagnosis of hypersexual disorder for inclusion in DSM-5: Unnecessary and harmful [Letter to the Editor]. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 487–488.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. Hardy, S. A., Steelman, M. A., Coyne, S. M., & Ridge, R. D. (2013). Adolescent religiousness as a protective factor against pornography use. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 34, 131–139.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2012.12.002.Google Scholar
  50. Harkness, E. L., Mullan, B., & Blaszczynski, A. (2015). Association between pornography use and sexual risk behaviors in adult consumers: A systematic review. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 18, 59–71.  https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0343.Google Scholar
  51. Hayes, S. C., Luoma, J. B., Bond, F. W., Masuda, A., & Lillis, J. (2006). Acceptance and commitment therapy: Model, processes and outcomes. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44, 1–25.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  52. Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). Most people are not WEIRD. Nature, 466, 29.  https://doi.org/10.1038/466029a.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  53. Hill, P., & Pargament, K. (2003). Advances in the conceptualization and measurement of religion and spirituality. Implications for physical and mental health research. American Psychologist, 58, 64–74.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  54. Hill, P. C., Pargament, K. I., Hood, R. W., McCullough, M. E., Jr., Swyers, J. P., Larson, D. B., & Zinnbauer, B. J. (2000). Conceptualizing religion and spirituality: Points of commonality, points of departure. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 30, 51–77.Google Scholar
  55. Hilton, D. L., Jr. (2013). Pornography addiction—A supranormal stimulus considered in the context of neuroplasticity. Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology, 3, 20767.  https://doi.org/10.3402/snp.v3i0.20767.Google Scholar
  56. Hilton, D. L., Jr., & Watts, C. (2011). Pornography addiction: A neuroscience perspective. Surgical Neurology International.  https://doi.org/10.4103/2152-7806.76977.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  57. Hook, J. N., Farrell, J. E., Ramos, M. J., Davis, D. E., Karaga, S., Tongeren, D. R. V., & Grubbs, J. (2015). Religiousness and congruence between sexual values and behavior. Journal of Psychology and Christianity, 34, 179–189.Google Scholar
  58. Hook, J. N., Hook, J. P., Davis, D. E., Worthington, E. L., Jr., & Penberthy, J. K. (2010). Measuring sexual addiction and compulsivity: A critical review of instruments. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 36, 227–260.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  59. Humphreys, K. (2018). Of moral judgments and sexual addictions. Addiction, 113, 387–388.  https://doi.org/10.1111/add.14066.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. Kafka, M. P. (2010). Hypersexual disorder: A proposed diagnosis for DSM-V. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 377–400.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  61. Kafka, M. P. (2014). What happened to hypersexual disorder? [Letter to the Editor]. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 43, 1259–1261.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  62. Kalichman, S. C., & Rompa, D. (1995). Sexual sensation seeking and sexual compulsivity scales: Validity, and predicting HIV risk behavior. Journal of Personality Assessment, 65, 586–601.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  63. Kalman, T. P. (2008). Clinical encounters with Internet pornography. Journal of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis and Dynamic Psychiatry, 36, 593–618.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  64. Kohut, T., Fisher, W. A., & Campbell, L. (2017). Perceived effects of pornography on the couple relationship: Initial findings of open-ended, participant-informed, “bottom-up” research. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 585–602.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0783-6.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  65. Kraus, S. W., Krueger, R. B., Briken, P., First, M. B., Stein, D. J., Kaplan, M. S., & Reed, G. M. (2018). Compulsive sexual behaviour disorder in the ICD-11. World Psychiatry, 17, 109–110.  https://doi.org/10.1002/wps.20499.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  66. Kraus, S. W., Martino, S., & Potenza, M. N. (2016a). Clinical characteristics of men interested in seeking treatment for use of pornography. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 5, 169–178.  https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.5.2016.036.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  67. Kraus, S. W., Meshberg-Cohen, S., Martino, S., Quinones, L. J., & Potenza, M. N. (2015). Treatment of compulsive pornography use with naltrexone: A case report. American Journal of Psychiatry, 172, 1260–1261.  https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2015.15060843.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  68. Kraus, S. W., Rosenberg, H., Martino, S., Nich, C., & Potenza, M. N. (2017). The development and initial evaluation of the Pornography-Use Avoidance Self-Efficacy Scale. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 6, 354–363.  https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.6.2017.057.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  69. Kraus, S. W., Voon, V., & Potenza, M. N. (2016b). Should compulsive sexual behavior be considered an addiction? Addiction, 111, 2097–2106.  https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13297.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  70. Kühn, S., & Gallinat, J. (2014). Brain structure and functional connectivity associated with pornography consumption: The brain on porn. JAMA Psychiatry, 71, 827–834.  https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2014.93.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  71. Kwee, W. A., Dominguez, A. W., & Ferrell, D. (2007). Sexual addiction and Christian college men: Conceptual, assessment, and treatment challenges. J Psychol Christ, 26, 3–13.Google Scholar
  72. Lambe, J. L. (2004). Who wants to censor pornography and hate speech? Mass Communication and Society, 7, 279–299.  https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327825mcs0703_2.Google Scholar
  73. Leonhardt, N. D., Willoughby, B. J., & Young-Petersen, B. (2018). Damaged goods: Perception of pornography addiction as a mediator between religiosity and relationship anxiety surrounding pornography use. Journal of Sex Research, 55, 357–368.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1295013.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  74. Levert, N. P. (2007). A comparison of Christian and non-Christian males, authoritarianism, and their relationship to internet pornography addiction/compulsion. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 14, 145–166.Google Scholar
  75. Lewczuk, K., Szmyd, J., Skorko, M., & Gola, M. (2017). Treatment seeking for problematic pornography use among women. Journal of Behavioral Addictions, 6, 445–456.  https://doi.org/10.1556/2006.6.2017.063.PubMedPubMedCentralGoogle Scholar
  76. Ley, D. J. (2012). The myth of sex addiction. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.Google Scholar
  77. Ley, D. J. (2016). Ethical porn for dicks: A man’s guide to responsible viewing pleasure. Berkeley, CA: ThreeL Media.Google Scholar
  78. Ley, D. J., Prause, N., & Finn, P. (2014). The emperor has no clothes: A review of the ‘pornography addiction’ model. Current Sexual Health Reports, 6, 94–105.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s11930-014-0016-8.Google Scholar
  79. Luoma, J. B., Kohlenberg, B. S., Hayes, S. C., Bunting, K., & Rye, A. K. (2008). Reducing self-stigma in substance abuse through acceptance and commitment therapy: Model, manual development, and pilot outcomes. Addiction Research & Theory, 16, 149–165.Google Scholar
  80. Luoma, J. B., Kohlenberg, B. S., Hayes, S. C., & Fletcher, L. (2012). Slow and steady wins the race: A randomized clinical trial of acceptance and commitment therapy targeting shame in substance use disorders. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 80, 43–53.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  81. Luscombe, B. (2016). Porn and the threat to virility. The first generation of men who grew up with unlimited online porn sound the alarm. Time, 187, 40–47.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  82. Lykke, L. C., & Cohen, P. N. (2015). The widening gender gap in opposition to pornography, 1975–2012. Social Currents, 2, 307–323.Google Scholar
  83. MacInnis, C. C., & Hodson, G. (2015). Do American states with more religious or conservative populations search more for sexual content on google? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 44, 137–147.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-014-0361-8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  84. MacInnis, C. C., & Hodson, G. (2016). Surfing for sexual sin: Relations between religiousness and viewing sexual content online. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 23, 196–210.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2015.1130000.Google Scholar
  85. Mitchell, K. J., Becker-Blease, K. A., & Finkelhor, D. (2005). Inventory of problematic internet experiences encountered in clinical practice. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36, 498–509.  https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.36.5.498.Google Scholar
  86. Moher, D., Liberati, A., Tetzlaff, J., & Altman, D. G. (2009). Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: The PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6, 6.  https://doi.org/10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135.Google Scholar
  87. Montgomery-Graham, S., Kohut, T., Fisher, W., & Campbell, L. (2015). How the popular media rushes to judgment about pornography and relationships while research lags behind. Canadian Journal of Human Sexuality, 24, 243–256.Google Scholar
  88. Morelli, M., Bianchi, D., Baiocco, R., Pezzuti, L., & Chirumbolo, A. (2017). Sexting behaviors and cyber pornography addiction among adolescents: The moderating role of alcohol consumption. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 14, 113–121.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13178-016-0234-0.Google Scholar
  89. Moser, C. (2011). Hypersexual disorder: Just more muddled thinking [Letter to the Editor]. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 40, 227–229.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-010-9690-4.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  90. Nelson, L. J., Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Carroll, J. S. (2010). “I believe it is wrong but I still do it”: A comparison of religious young men who do versus do not use pornography. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 2, 136–147.  https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019127.Google Scholar
  91. Net Nanny. (2017). Retrieved October 24, 2017, from https://www.netnanny.com/.
  92. NoFap.com. (2017). Retrieved October 20, 2017, from https://www.nofap.com/.
  93. Oman, D. (2013). Religious and spirituality: Evolving meanings. In R. F. Paloutzian & C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality (2nd ed., pp. 23–47). New York, NY: Guilford Press.Google Scholar
  94. Pargament, K. I. (1999). The psychology of religion and spirituality? Yes and no. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 9, 3–16.Google Scholar
  95. Park, J. (2014). Cutting it off: Breaking porn addiction and how to quit for good. North Charleston, SC: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.Google Scholar
  96. Patterson, R., & Price, J. (2012). Pornography, religion, and the happiness gap: Does pornography impact the actively religious differently? Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 51, 79–89.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  97. Perry, S. L. (2015). Pornography consumption as a threat to religious socialization. Sociology of Religion, 76, 436–458.  https://doi.org/10.1093/socrel/srv043.Google Scholar
  98. Perry, S. L. (2016). From bad to worse? Pornography consumption, spousal religiosity, gender, and marital quality. Sociological Forum, 31, 441–464.  https://doi.org/10.1111/socf.12252.Google Scholar
  99. Perry, S. L. (2017). Pornography use and depressive symptoms: Examining the role of moral incongruence. Society and Mental Health.  https://doi.org/10.1177/2156869317728373.Google Scholar
  100. Perry, S. L. (2018). Not practicing what you preach: Religion and incongruence between pornography beliefs and usage. Journal of Sex Research, 55, 369–380.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1333569.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  101. Perry, S. L., & Hayward, G. M. (2017). Seeing is (not) believing: How viewing pornography shapes the religious lives of young Americans. Social Forces, 95, 1757–1788.  https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/sow106.Google Scholar
  102. Perry, S. L., & Snawder, K. J. (2017). Pornography, religion, and parent–child relationship quality. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 1747–1761.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-016-0927-8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  103. Perry, S. L., & Whitehead, A. L. (2018). Only bad for believers? Religion, pornography use, and sexual satisfaction among American men. Journal of Sex Research.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1423017.Google Scholar
  104. Potenza, M. N., Gola, M., Voon, V., Kor, A., & Kraus, S. W. (2017). Is excessive sexual behaviour an addictive disorder? Lancet Psychiatry, 4, 663–664.  https://doi.org/10.1016/S2215-0366(17)30316-4.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  105. Prause, N. (2017). Evaluate models of high-frequency sexual behaviors already [Commentary]. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 2269–2274.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-1078-2.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  106. Prause, N., Steele, V. R., Staley, C., Sabatinelli, D., & Hajcak, G. (2015). Modulation of late positive potentials by sexual images in problem users and controls inconsistent with “porn addiction”. Biological Psychology, 109, 192–199.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2015.06.005.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  107. Rasmussen, K. R., & Bierman, A. (2016). How does religious attendance shape trajectories of pornography use across adolescence? Journal of Adolescence, 49, 191–203.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  108. Reboot Nation. (2017). Retrieved October 20, 2017, from http://www.rebootnation.org/.
  109. Reid, R. C. (2016). Additional challenges and issues in classifying compulsive sexual behavior as an addiction. Addiction, 111, 2111–2113.  https://doi.org/10.1111/add.13370.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  110. Reid, R. C., Carpenter, B. N., & Hook, J. N. (2016). Investigating correlates of hypersexual behavior in religious patients. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 23, 296–312.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2015.1130002.Google Scholar
  111. Reid, R. C., Carpenter, B. N., Hook, J. N., Garos, S., Manning, J. C., Gilliland, R., & Fong, T. (2012). Report of findings in a DSM-5 field trial for hypersexual disorder. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 9, 2868–2877.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  112. Reid, R. C., & Kafka, M. P. (2014). Controversies about hypersexual disorder and the DSM-5. Current Sexual Health Reports, 6, 259–264.Google Scholar
  113. Robison, J. (1982). Pornography, the polluting of America. Wheaton, IL: Tyndale House Publishers.Google Scholar
  114. Ross, M. W., Månsson, S.-A., & Daneback, K. (2012). Prevalence, severity, and correlates of problematic sexual internet use in Swedish men and women. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 41, 459–466.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-011-9762-0.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  115. Salzman, B. (2017). The triple a engine—The perfect storm of porn addiction—Brad Salzman CSAT on Vimeo. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/203122344.
  116. Schneider, J. P., & Schneider, B. H. (1990). Marital satisfaction during recovery from self-identified sexual addiction among bisexual men and their wives. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 16, 230–250.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00926239008405460.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  117. Sessoms, J. (2011). The cyber pornography use inventory: Comparing a religious and secular sample. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/honors/247/.
  118. Short, M. B., Black, L., Smith, A. H., Wetterneck, C. T., & Wells, D. E. (2012). A review of internet pornography use research: Methodology and content from the past 10 years. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking, 15, 13–23.  https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2010.0477.Google Scholar
  119. Short, M. B., Wetterneck, C. T., Bistricky, S. L., Shutter, T., & Chase, T. E. (2016). Clinicians’ beliefs, observations, and treatment effectiveness regarding clients’ sexual addiction and internet pornography use. Community Mental Health Journal, 52, 1070–1081.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10597-016-0034-2.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  120. Sniewski, L., Farvid, P., & Carter, P. (2018). The assessment and treatment of adult heterosexual men with self-perceived problematic pornography use: A review. Addictive Behaviors, 77, 217–224.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2017.10.010.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  121. Stein, D. J., Black, D. W., Shapira, N. A., & Spitzer, R. L. (2001). Hypersexual disorder and preoccupation with internet pornography. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 1590–1594.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  122. Stern, S. E., & Handel, A. D. (2001). Sexuality and mass media: The historical context of psychology’s reaction to sexuality on the internet. Journal of Sex Research, 38, 283–291.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00224490109552099.Google Scholar
  123. Struthers, W. M. (2009). Wired for intimacy: How pornography hijacks the male brain. Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press.Google Scholar
  124. Štulhofer, A., Jurin, T., & Briken, P. (2016). Is high sexual desire a facet of male hypersexuality? Results from an online study. Journal of Sex and Marital Therapy, 42, 665–680.  https://doi.org/10.1080/0092623X.2015.1113585.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  125. Thomas, J. N. (2013). Outsourcing moral authority: The internal secularization of evangelicals’ anti-pornography narratives. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion.  https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12052.Google Scholar
  126. Thomas, J. N. (2016). The development and deployment of the idea of pornography addiction within American Evangelicalism. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 23, 182–195.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2016.1140603.Google Scholar
  127. Thomas, J. N., Alper, B. A., & Gleason, S. A. (2017). Anti-pornography narratives as self-fulfilling prophecies: Religious variation in the effect that pornography viewing has on the marital happiness of husbands. Review of Religious Research, 59, 471–497.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s13644-017-0301-x.Google Scholar
  128. Twohig, M. P., & Crosby, J. M. (2010). Acceptance and commitment therapy as a treatment for problematic internet pornography viewing. Behavior Therapy, 41, 285–295.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2009.06.002.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  129. Twohig, M. P., Crosby, J. M., & Cox, J. M. (2009). Viewing internet pornography: For whom is it problematic, how, and why? Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 16, 253–266.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720160903300788.Google Scholar
  130. Ullman, J. (1998). Cyber sex. Retrieved October 6, 2017, from http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/199809/cyber-sex.
  131. United States Attorney General’s Commission. (1986). Attorney General’s commission on pornography: Final Report. U.S. Department of Justice.Google Scholar
  132. Vaillancourt-Morel, M.-P., Blais-Lecours, S., Labadie, C., Bergeron, S., Sabourin, S., & Godbout, N. (2017). Profiles of cyberpornography use and sexual well-being in adults. Journal of Sexual Medicine, 14, 78–85.  https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2016.10.016.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  133. Volk, F., Thomas, J., Sosin, L., Jacob, V., & Moen, C. (2016). Religiosity, developmental context, and sexual shame in pornography users: A serial mediation model. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 23, 244–259.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2016.1151391.Google Scholar
  134. Voros, F. (2009). The invention of addiction to pornography. Sexologies, 18, 243–246.Google Scholar
  135. Walton, M. T., Cantor, J. M., Bhullar, N., & Lykins, A. D. (2017). Hypersexuality: A critical review and introduction to the “Sexhavior Cycle”. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 46, 2231–2251.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-017-0991-8.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  136. Whitehead, A. L., & Perry, S. L. (2018). Unbuckling the Bible Belt: A state-level analysis of religious factors and google searches for porn. Journal of Sex Research, 55, 273–283.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2017.1278736.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  137. Wilson, G. (2014). Your brain on porn: Internet pornography and the emerging science of addiction. Richmond, VA: Commonwealth Publishing.Google Scholar
  138. Wilt, J. A., Cooper, E. B., Grubbs, J. B., Exline, J. J., & Pargament, K. I. (2016). Associations of perceived addiction to internet pornography with religious/spiritual and psychological functioning. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 23, 260–278.  https://doi.org/10.1080/10720162.2016.1140604.Google Scholar
  139. Winters, J., Christoff, K., & Gorzalka, B. B. (2010). Dysregulated sexuality and high sexual desire: Distinct constructs? Archives of Sexual Behavior, 39, 1029–1043.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-009-9591-6.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  140. Womack, S. D., Hook, J. N., Ramos, M., Davis, D. E., & Penberthy, J. K. (2013). Measuring hypersexual behavior. Sexual Addiction & Compulsivity, 20, 65–78.Google Scholar
  141. Wright, P. J. (2013). U.S. males and pornography, 1973–2010: Consumption, predictors, correlates. The Journal of Sex Research, 50, 60–71.  https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2011.628132.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  142. Wright, P. J., Bae, S., & Funk, M. (2013). United States women and pornography through four decades: Exposure, attitudes, behaviors, individual differences. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 42, 1131–1144.  https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-013-0116-y.PubMedGoogle Scholar
  143. X3Watch. (2017). Retrieved November 13, 2017, from https://x3watch.com/.
  144. Young, K. S. (2008). Internet sex addiction: Risk factors, stages of development, and treatment. American Behavioral Scientist, 52, 21–37.Google Scholar
  145. Your Brain On Porn. (2017). Retrieved October 20, 2017, from https://www.yourbrainonporn.com/.
  146. Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support. Journal of Personality Assessment, 52, 30–41.Google Scholar

Copyright information

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018

Authors and Affiliations

  1. 1.Department of PsychologyBowling Green State UniversityBowling GreenUSA
  2. 2.Department of SociologyUniversity of OklahomaNormanUSA
  3. 3.Department of Psychological SciencesCase Western Reserve UniversityClevelandUSA
  4. 4.Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral SciencesUniversity of CaliforniaLos AngelesUSA

Personalised recommendations

Cite article

Buy options