Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Criminal Justice System Involvement as a Risk Factor for Detectable Plasma HIV Viral Load in People Who Use Illicit Drugs: A Longitudinal Cohort Study

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
AIDS and Behavior Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Among HIV-positive people who use illicit drugs (PWUD) in our setting, repeated periods of incarceration adversely affect ART adherence in a dose-dependent manner. However, the impact of non-custodial criminal justice involvement on HIV-related outcomes has not been previously investigated. Data were obtained from a longitudinal cohort of HIV-positive PWUD in a setting of universal no-cost ART and complete dispensation records. Multivariate generalized estimating equations were used to calculate the longitudinal odds of having a detectable HIV VL (VL) associated with custodial and non-custodial CJS exposure. Between 2005 and 2014, 716 HIV-positive ART-exposed PWUD were recruited. In multivariate analysis, both custodial [Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 0.61, 95% CI 0.45–0.82] and noncustodial (AOR 0.78, 95% CI 0.62–0.99) involvement in the criminal justice system was associated with detectable HIV VL. Among HIV-positive PWUD, both custodial and non-custodial criminal justice involvement is associated with worse HIV treatment outcomes. Our findings highlight the need for increased ART adherence support across the full spectrum of the criminal justice system.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. Altice FL, Kamarulzaman A, Soriano VV, Schechter M, Friedland GH. Treatment of medical, psychiatric, and substance-use comorbidities in people infected with HIV who use drugs. Lancet. 2010;376:367–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  2. Small W, Milloy MJ, McNeil R, Maher L, Kerr T. Plasma HIV-1 RNA viral load rebound among people who inject drugs receiving antiretroviral therapy (ART) in a Canadian setting: an ethno-epidemiological study. AIDS Res Ther. 2016;13:26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  3. Stein MD, Rich JD, Maksad J, Chen MH, Hu P, Sobota M, et al. Adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected methadone patients: effect of ongoing illicit drug use. Am J Drug Alcohol Abuse. 2000;26:195–205.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Fu JJ, Herme M, Wickersham JA, Zelenev A, Althoff A, Zaller ND, et al. Understanding the revolving door: individual and structural-level predictors of recidivism among individuals with HIV leaving jail. AIDS Behav. 2013;17(Suppl 2):S145–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Krusi A, Wood E, Montaner J, Kerr T. Social and structural determinants of HAART access and adherence among injection drug users. Int J Drug Policy. 2010;21:4–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  6. Parashar S, Collins AB, Montaner JSG, Hogg RS, Milloy M-J. Reducing rates of preventable HIV/AIDS-associated mortality among people living with HIV who inject drugs. Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2016;11:507–13.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Milloy MJ, Kerr T, Salters K, Samji H, Guillemi S, Montaner J, et al. Incarceration is associated with used syringe lending among active injection drug users with detectable plasma HIV-1 RNA: a longitudinal analysis. BMC Infect Dis. 2013;13:565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  8. Milloy MJ, Kerr T, Buxton J, Rhodes T, Guillemi S, Hogg R, et al. Dose-response effect of incarceration events on nonadherence to HIV antiretroviral therapy among injection drug users. J Infect Dis. 2011;203:1215–21.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Milloy M-J, Kerr T, Buxton J, Rhodes T, Krusi A, Guillemi S, et al. Social and environmental predictors of plasma HIV RNA rebound among injection drug users treated with antiretroviral therapy. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2012;59:393–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  10. Westergaard RP, Kirk GD, Richesson DR, Galai N, Mehta SH. Incarceration predicts virologic failure for HIV-infected injection drug users receiving antiretroviral therapy. Clin Infect Dis. 2011;53:725–31.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  11. Small W, Wood E, Betteridge G, Montaner J, Kerr T. The impact of incarceration upon adherence to HIV treatment among HIV-positive injection drug users: a qualitative study. AIDS Care. 2009;21:708–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  12. Meyer JP, Cepeda J, Wu J, Trestman RL, Altice FL, Springer SA. Optimization of human immunodeficiency virus treatment during incarceration: viral suppression at the prison gate. JAMA Intern Med. 2014;174:721–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Stephenson BL, Wohl DA, Golin CE, Tien H-C, Stewart P, Kaplan AH. Effect of release from prison and re-incarceration on the viral loads of HIV-infected individuals. Public Health Rep. 2005;120:84–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Clements-Nolle K, Marx R, Pendo M, Loughran E, Estes M, Katz M. Highly active antiretroviral therapy use and HIV transmission risk behaviors among individuals who are HIV infected and were recently released from jail. Am J Public Health. 2008;98:661–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Meyer JP, Cepeda J, Springer SA, Wu J, Trestman RL, Altice FL. HIV in people reincarcerated in Connecticut prisons and jails: an observational cohort study. Lancet HIV. 2014;1:e77–84.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. Milloy MJ, Wood E, Kerr T, Hogg B, Guillemi S, Harrigan PR, et al. Increased prevalence of controlled viremia and decreased rates of HIV drug resistance among HIV-positive people who use illicit drugs during a community-wide treatment-as-prevention initiative. Clin Infect Dis. 2015;62(5):640–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  17. Milloy M-J, Kerr T, Bangsberg DR, Buxton J, Parashar S, Guillemi S, et al. Homelessness as a structural barrier to effective antiretroviral therapy among HIV-seropositive illicit drug users in a Canadian setting. AIDS Patient Care STDS. 2012;26:60–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  18. Strathdee SA, Palepu A, Cornelisse PG, Yip B, O’Shaughnessy MV, Montaner JS, et al. Barriers to use of free antiretroviral therapy in injection drug users. JAMA. 1998;280:547–9.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Miller CL, Spittal PM, LaLiberte N, Li K, Tyndall MW, O’Shaughnessy MV, et al. Females experiencing sexual and drug vulnerabilities are at elevated risk for HIV infection among youth who use injection drugs. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2002;30:335–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  20. Strathdee SA, Patrick DM, Currie SL, Cornelisse PG, Rekart ML, Montaner JS, et al. Needle exchange is not enough: lessons from the Vancouver injecting drug use study. AIDS. 1997;11:F59–65.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Maldonado G. Simulation study of confounder-selection strategies. Am J Epidemiol. 1993;138:923–36.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Lima V, Fernandes K, Rachlis B, Druyts E, Montaner J, Hogg R. Migration adversely affects antiretroviral adherence in a population-based cohort of HIV/AIDS patients. Soc Sci Med. 2009;68:1044–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  23. Maldonado G, Greenland S. Simulation study of confounder-selection strategies. Am J Epidemiol. 1993;138:923–36.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Marshall BDL, Kerr T, Shoveller JA, Patterson TL, Buxton JA, Wood E. Homelessness and unstable housing associated with an increased risk of HIV and STI transmission among street-involved youth. Health Place. 2009;15:753–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  25. Palepu A, Tyndall MW, Chan K, Wood E, Montaner JSG, Hogg RS. Initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy and continuity of HIV care: the impact of incarceration and prison release on adherence and HIV treatment outcomes. Antivir Ther. 2004;9:713–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Palepu A, Tyndall MW, Li K, Yip B, O’Shaughnessy MV, Schechter MT, et al. Alcohol use and incarceration adversely affect HIV-1 RNA suppression among injection drug users starting antiretroviral therapy. J Urban Health. 2003;80:667–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Iroh PA, Mayo H, Nijhawan AE. The HIV care cascade before, during, and after incarceration: a systematic review and data synthesis. Am J Public Health. 2015;105:e5–16.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  28. Baillargeon J, Giordano TP, Rich JD, Wu ZH, Wells K, Pollock BH, et al. Accessing antiretroviral therapy following release from prison. JAMA. 2009;301:848–57.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Zaller N, Gordon M, Bazerman L, Kuo I, Beckwith C. The HIV care cascade among individuals under community supervision in Baltimore, Maryland. J Correct Heal Care. 2017;23:305–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  30. Anema A, Kerr T, Milloy M-J, Feng C, Montaner JSG, Wood E. Relationship between hunger, adherence to antiretroviral therapy and plasma HIV RNA suppression among HIV-positive illicit drug users in a Canadian setting. AIDS Care. 2014;26:459–65.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  31. Joseph B, Kerr T, Puskas CM, Montaner J, Wood E, Milloy M-J. Factors linked to transitions in adherence to antiretroviral therapy among HIV-infected illicit drug users in a Canadian setting. AIDS Care. 2015;27:1128–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Kidder DP, Wolitski RJ, Pals SL, Campsmith ML. Housing status and HIV risk behaviors among homeless and housed persons with HIV. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2008;49:451–5.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  33. Topp L, Iversen J, Baldry E, Maher L. Housing instability among people who inject drugs: results from the Australian needle and syringe program survey. J Urban Health. 2013;90:699–716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  34. de Pee S, Grede N, Mehra D, Bloem MW. The enabling effect of food assistance in improving adherence and/or treatment completion for antiretroviral therapy and tuberculosis treatment: a literature review. AIDS Behav. 2014;18(Suppl 5):S531–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  35. Singer AW, Weiser SD, McCoy SI. Does food insecurity undermine adherence to antiretroviral therapy? A systematic review. AIDS Behav. 2015;19:1510–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Young S, Wheeler AC, McCoy SI, Weiser SD. A review of the role of food insecurity in adherence to care and treatment among adult and pediatric populations living with HIV and AIDS. AIDS Behav. 2014;18(Suppl 5):S505–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  37. Chandler R, Gordon MS, Kruszka B, Strand LN, Altice FL, Beckwith CG, et al. Cohort profile: seek, test, treat and retain United States criminal justice cohort. Subst Abuse Treat Prev Policy. 2017;12:24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Volkow ND, Montaner J. The urgency of providing comprehensive and integrated treatment for substance abusers with HIV. Health Aff (Millwood). 2011;30:1411–9.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  39. Springer SA, Chen S, Altice FL. Improved HIV and substance abuse treatment outcomes for released HIV-infected prisoners: the impact of buprenorphine treatment. J Urban Health. 2010;87:592–602.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors thank the study participants for their contribution to the research, as well as current and past researchers and staff. The study was supported by the US National Institutes of Health (R01DA021525). Dr. Milloy is supported by NIDA (U01-DA021525) and his institution has received an unstructured gift from NG Biomed Ltd., a private firm applying to the Canadian federal government for a license to produce medical cannabis, to support him. Drs. Milloy and Richardson are supported by CIHR New Investigator awards and Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research Scholar Awards. Dr. Fairbairn is supported by a Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research and St. Paul’s Foundation Scholar Award. NA Mohd Salleh’s postgraduate studies at the University of British Columbia are funded by the Malaysian Ministry of Higher Education and the University of Malaya, Malaysia.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. British Columbia Centre on Substance Use, Vancouver, BC, Canada

    Sarah Ickowicz, N. A. Mohd Salleh, Nadia Fairbairn, Lindsey Richardson, Will Small & M.-J. Milloy

  2. Interdisciplinary Studies Graduate Program, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

    N. A. Mohd Salleh

  3. Department of Medicine, St. Paul’s Hospital, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

    Nadia Fairbairn & M.-J. Milloy

  4. Department of Sociology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada

    Lindsey Richardson

  5. Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, BC, Canada

    Will Small

Authors
  1. Sarah Ickowicz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. N. A. Mohd Salleh
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Nadia Fairbairn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Lindsey Richardson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Will Small
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. M.-J. Milloy
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to M.-J. Milloy.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ickowicz, S., Salleh, N.A.M., Fairbairn, N. et al. Criminal Justice System Involvement as a Risk Factor for Detectable Plasma HIV Viral Load in People Who Use Illicit Drugs: A Longitudinal Cohort Study. AIDS Behav 23, 2634–2639 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-019-02547-z

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10461-019-02547-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation