Abstract
The elevation dependence of climate change is unequivocal. Landslides (slides and debris flows) are the key mark of climate change acting on the land cryosphere, and they can pose a severe threat to the downslope or downstream community. However, whether there is an elevation dependence of landslide activity caused by climate change is unknown. In this study, Taxkorgan County in the eastern Pamirs was designated as the target area for studying the elevation dependence of shallow landslide activity. The volume and number of landslides have gradually increased over the last 20 years as the climate has become warmer and wetter. Small-sized (< 50 × 103 m3) slides induced by torrential rainfall are concentrated in areas below the 0 °C isotherm curve, while larger volume (> 50 × 103 m3) debris flows caused by the maximum temperature are distributed in areas above the 0 °C isotherm curve. Moreover, the landslides induced by climate change in the study area have a significant elevation dependence. In particular, the number and volume of debris flow affected by the maximum temperature in the areas above the 0 °C isotherm curve gradually increase with elevation. In the future (2020–2049), more small-sized slides will occur below the 0 °C isotherm curve as the climate continues to become warmer and wetter. The number and volume of the large-volume debris flow in the regions above the 0 °C isotherm curve will continuously increase with elevation. Our findings suggest that identifying and predicting the volume, number, and triggering factors of landslides within different elevation intervals should contribute to the more accurate assessment and management of landslide risks at the regional scale.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allen SK, Rastner P, Arora M, Huggel C, Stoffel M (2016) Lake outburst and debris flow disaster at Kedarnath, June 2013: hydrometeorological triggering and topographic predisposition. Landslides 13:1479–1491. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-015-0584-3
Bashir F, Zeng X, Gupta H, Pieter H (2017) A hydrometeorological perspective on the Karakoram anomaly using unique valley-based synoptic weather observations. Geophys Res Lett 44(20):470–478. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017GL075284
Berthier´E, Brun F (2019) Karakoram geodetic glacier mass balances between 2008 and 2016: persistence of the anomaly and influence of a large rock avalanche on Siachen Glacier. J Glaciol 65(251):494–507. https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2019.32
Carrara A, Crosta G, Frattini P (2003) Geomorphological and historical data in assessing landslide hazard. Earth Surf Proc Land 28(10):1125–1142. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.545
Chai MT, Mu YH, Zhang JM, Ma W (2018) Characteristics of asphalt pavement damage in degrading permafrost regions: case study of the Qinghai-Tibet Highway. China J Cold Reg Eng 32(2):05018003. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CR.1943-5495.0000165
Chiarle M, Coviello V, Arattano M, Silvestri P, Nigrelli G (2015) High elevation rock falls and their climatic control: a case study in the Conca di Cervinia (NW Italian Alps). Eng Geol Soc Territory 1:439–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-09300-0_84
Coe JA (2012) Regional moisture balance control of landslide motion: implications for landslide forecasting in a changing climate. Geology 40(4):323–326. https://doi.org/10.1130/G32897.1
Coe JA, Godt JW (2012) Review of approaches for assessing the impact of climate change on landslide hazards. Taylor & Francis Group London pp:371–377
Coe JA, Bessette-Kirton EK, Geertsema M (2018) Increasing rock avalanche size and mobility in Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve, Alaska detected from 1984–2016 Landsat imagery. Landslides 15:393–407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-017-0879-7
Coe JA (2020) Bellwether sites for evaluating changes in landslide frequency and magnitude in cryospheric mountainous terrain: a call for systematic, long-term observations to decipher the impact of climate change. Landslides 17(11):2483–2501. https://doi.org/10.1007/10346-020-01462-y
Cody E, Draebing D, McColl S, Brideau M (2020) Geomorphology and geological controls on an active paraglacial rockslide in the New Zealand Southern Alps. Landslides 17:755–776. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01316-2
Cruden DM, Varnes DJ (1996) Landslide types and processes. In: Turner AK, Schuster RL (Eds.), Landslides: investigation and mitigation. Special-Report 247, Transportation Research Board, National Research Council. National Academy Press, Washington, DC pp:36–75
Dai XG, Wang P (2010) Zonal mean mode of global warming over the past 50 years. Atmos Ocean Sci Lett 3(1):45–50. https://doi.org/10.1080/16742834.2010.11446835
Deng YH, Wang SJ, Bai XY, Wu LH, Cao Y, Li HW, Wang MM, Li CJ, Yang YJ, Hu ZY, Tian SQ, Lu Q (2020) Comparison of soil moisture products from microwave remote sensing, land model, and reanalysis using global ground observations. Hydrol Process 34(3):1–47. https://doi.org/10.1002/hyp.13636
Diaz-Nieto J, Wilby RL (2005) A comparison of statistical downscaling and climate change factor methods: impacts on low flows in the river Thames. United Kingdom Climatic Change 69(2–3):245–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-005-1157-6
Eriksen HO, Rouyet L, Lauknes TR, Berthling I, Isaksen K, Hindberg H, Larsen Y, Corner GD (2018) Recent acceleration of a rock glacier complex, Ádjet, Norway, documented by 62 years of remote sensing observations. Geophys Res Lett 45(16):8314–8323. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL077605
Fatolazadeh F, Eshagh M, Gota K (2020) A new approach for generating optimal GLDAS hydrological products and uncertainties. Sci Total Environ 737:138932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138932
Firozjaei MK, Fathololoumi S, Panah S, Kiavarz M, Biswas A (2020) A new approach for modeling near surface temperature lapse rate based on normalized land surface temperature data. Remote Sens Environ 242:1–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2020.111746
Fujita K, Sakai A, Takenaka S, Nuimura T, Yamanokuchi T (2013) Potential flood volume of Himalayan glacial lakes. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci Discuss 1(1):1827–1839. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhessd-1-15-2013
Gardelle J, Berthier E, Arnaud Y, Kaab A (2013) Region-wide glacier mass balances over the Pamir-Karakoram-Himalaya during 1999–2011. Cryosphere 7:1263–1286. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-1885-2013
Grose MR, Narsey S, Delage F, Dowdy AJ, Power SB (2020) Insights from CMIP6 for Australia’s future climate. Earth’s Future 8(5):480–504. https://doi.org/10.1002/essoar.10501525.1
Guzzetti F, Cardinali M, Reichenbach P, Carrara A (2000) Comparing landslide maps: a case study in the upper Tiber River Basin, central Italy. Environ Manage 25(3):247–363. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002679910020
Guzzetti F, Mondini AC, Cardinali M, Fiorucci F, Santangelo M, Chang KT (2012) Landslide inventory maps: new tools for an old problem. Earth Sci Rev 112(1–2):42–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2012.02.001
Haeberli W, Whiteman C (2015) Snow and ice-related hazards, risks, and disasters. Elsevier, Amsterdam 812. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817129-5.00014-7
Harrison S, Kargel JS, Huggel C, Reynolds JM, Vilímek V (2018) Climate change and the global pattern of moraine-dammed glacial lake outburst floods. Cryosphere 12(4):1195–1209. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-12-1195-2018
Hassan J, Kayastha RB, Shrestha A, Bano I, Ali SH, Magsi HZ (2017) Predictions of future hydrological conditions and contribution of snow and ice melt in total discharge of Shigar River Basin in Central Karakoram. Pakistan. Sci Cold Arid Reg 9(6):511–524
Hay LE, Wilby RL, Leavesley GH (2010) A comparison of Delta change and downscaled GCM scenarios for three mountainous basins in the United States. J Am Water Resour Assoc 36(2):387–397. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2000.tb04276.x
Hewitt K (2005) The Karakoram anomaly? Glacier expansion and the ‘elevation effect.’ Karakoram Himalaya Mountain Research and Development 25(4):332–341. https://doi.org/10.1659/0276-4741(2005)025[0332:TKAGEA]2.0.CO;2
Hewitt K (2007) Tributary glacier surges: an exceptional concentration at Panmah Glacier. Karakoram Himalaya International Glaciological Society 53(181):181–188. https://doi.org/10.3189/172756507782202829
Hewitt K (2009) Rock avalanches that travel onto glaciers and related developments, Karakoram Himalaya. Inner Asia Geomorphology 103(1):66–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2007.10.017
Hock R, Rasul G, Adler C, Cáceres B, Gruber S, Hirabayashi Y, Jackson M, Kääb A, Kang S, Kutuzov S, Milner A, Molau U, Morin S, Orlove B, Steltzer H (2019) High mountain areas. In: IPCC Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate. In press
Hu YY, Xu Y, Li JJ, Han ZY (2021) Evaluation on the performance of CMIP6 global climate models with different horizontal resolution in simulating the precipitation over China. Clim Change Res 2:1–19
Huggel C, Clague JJ, Korup O (2012) Is climate change responsible for changing landslide activity in high mountains? Earth Surf Proc Land 37(1):77–91. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.2223
Hungr O, Leroueil S, Picarelli L (2014) The Varnes classification of landslide types, an update. Landslides 11(2):167–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-013-0436-y
Jakob M, Owen T (2021) Projected effects of climate change on shallow landslides, North Shore Mountains, Vancouver, Canada. Geomorphology 25:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2021.107921
Jiang N, Su F, Li Y, Guo X, Liu X (2012) Debris flow assessment in the Gaizi-Bulunkou section of Karakoram Highway. Front Earth Sci 9:660579. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2021.660579
Jiang Q, Chan D, Xiong J (2016) Back analysis of a debris landslide based on real-time video record: sliding process and post-sliding investigation. Bull Eng Geol Environ 75(2):647–658. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-015-0831-9
Jiang R, Zhang L, Peng D, He X, He J (2021) The landslide hazard chain in the Tapovan of the Himalayas on 7 February 2021. Geophys Res Lett 48:1–11. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL093723
Kang ZW, Zhang ZY, Liu L, Wang TX, Tian H, Chen HJ, Zhang XY (2022) Spatio-temporal variation characteristics of land surface temperature in Xinjiang based on MODIS. Geogr Res 41(04):997–1017. https://doi.org/10.11821/dlyj020210232
Key JR, Collins JB, Fowler C, Stone RS (1997) High-latitude surface temperature estimates from thermal satellite data. Remote Sens Environ 61(2):302–309. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0034-4257(97)89497-7
Khadka D, Babel MS, Shrestha S, Tripathi NK (2014) Climate change impacts on glacier and snowmelt and runoff in the Tamakoshi basin in the Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region. J Hydrol 511:49–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.01.005
Kirschbaum DB, Adler R, Hong Y, Hill S, Lerner-Lam A (2010) A global landslide catalog for hazard applications: method, results, and limitations. Nat Hazards 52(3):561–575. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-009-9401-4
Kirschbaum D, Kapnick SB, Stanley T, Pascale S (2020) Changes in extreme precipitation and landslides over high mountain Asia. Geophys Res Lett 47(4):1–9. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019GL085347
Li JL, Chen X, Bao AM, Shen ZF, Ji SP (2016a) Glacier hazard emergency monitoring of the Jiubie Peak in Kongur Mountains using unmanned aerial vehicle photogrammetry. Arid Land Geography 39(2):378–386
Li BF, Chen YN, Chen ZS, Xiong HG, Lian LS (2016b) Why does precipitation in northwest China show a significant increasing trend from 1960 to 2010? Atmos Res 167:275–284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.08.017
Liu Y, Yang Z, Lin P, Zheng Z, Xie S (2019) Comparison and evaluation of multiple land surface products for the water budget in the yellow river basin. J Hydrol 584:1–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.124534
Liu ZJ, Qiu HJ, Zhu YR, Liu Y, Yang DD, Ma SY, Zhang JJ, Wang YY, Wang LY, Tang BZ (2022) Efficient identification and monitoring of landslides by time-series InSAR combining single- and multi-look phases. Remote Sens 14(4):1026. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14041026
Liu ZJ, Qiu HJ, Ma SY, Yang DD, Pei YQ, Du C, Sun HS, Hu S, Zhu YR (2021) Surface displacement and topographic change analysis of the Changhe landslide on September 14, 2019. China Landslides 18(4):1471–1483. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01626-4
Ma XJ, Hao YG, Wang YX, Zhou XY, Li B, Juma TEX, Shi J, Pan S, Han FF, Han QY (2016) Detailed investigation report on geo-hazards in Taxkorgan County, Xinjiang. National Geological Data Library. https://doi.org/10.35080/n01.c.172136
Ma F, Yuan X, Jiao Y, Ji P (2020) Unprecedented Europe heat in June-July 2019: risk in the historical and future context. Geophys Res Lett 47(11):e2020GL087809. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020GL087809
Ma SY, Qiu HJ, Zhu YR, Yang DD, Tang BZ, Wang DZ, Wang LY, Cao MM (2023) Topographic changes, surface deformation and movement process before, during and after a Rotational Landslide. Remote Sens 15:662. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15030662
Minora U, Bocchiola D, Agata C, Maragno D, Mayer C, Lambrecht A, Mosconi B, Vuillermoz E, Senese A, Compostella C (2013) 2001–2010 glacier changes in the Central Karakoram National Park: a contribution to evaluate the magnitude and rate of the “Karakoram anomaly.” The Cryosphere Discussions 7(3):2891–2941. https://doi.org/10.5194/tcd-7-2891-2013
Miralles DG, Teuling AJ, Heerwaarden CCV, Arellano JVD (2014) Mega-heatwave temperatures due to combined soil desiccation and atmospheric heat accumulation. Nat Geosci 7:345–349. https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2141
Ni J, Wu T, Zhu X, Hu G, Yang C (2020) Simulation of the present and future projection of permafrost on the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau with statistical and machine learning models. J Gerontol Ser A Biol Med Sci 126(2):1–20. https://doi.org/10.1002/essoar.10503593.2
Nie Y, Sheng YW, Liu Q, Liu L, Liu S, Zhang Y, Song C (2017) A regional-scale assessment of Himalayan glacial lake changes using satellite observations from 1990 to 2015. Remote Sens Environ 189:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2016.11.008
Ohmura A (2012) Enhanced temperature variability in high-altitude climate change. Theoret Appl Climatol 110(4):499–508. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-012-0687-x
Panagos P, Ballabio C, Meusburger K, Spinoni J, Alewell C, Borrelli P (2017) Towards estimates of future rainfall erosivity in Europe based on redes and worldclim datasets. J Hydrol 548:251–262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2017.03.006
Paranunzio R, Laio F, Chiarle M, Nigrelli G, Guzzetti F (2016) Climate anomalies associated to the occurrence of rockfalls at high-elevation in the Italian Alps. Nat Hazards Earth Syst Sci 16(9):2085–2106. https://doi.org/10.5194/nhess-2016-100
Patton AI, Rathburn SL, Capps DM (2019) Landslide response to climate change in permafrost regions. Geomorphology 340:116–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2019.04.029
Pei YQ, Qiu HJ, Yang DD, Liu ZJ, Ma SY, Li JY, Cao MM, Waili WFE (2023) Increasing landslide activity in the Taxkorgan River Basin (eastern Pamirs Plateau, China) driven by climate change. CATENA 223:106911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2023.106911
Pepin N, Bradley RS, Diaz HF, Baraer M, Caceres EB, Forsythe N, Fowler H, Greenwood G, Hashmi MZ, Liu XD, Miller JR, Ning L, Ohmura A, Palazzi E, Rangwala I, Schöner W, Severskiy I, Shahgedanova M, Wang MB, Williamson SN, Yang DQ (2015) Elevation-dependent warming in mountain regions of the world. Nat Clim Chang 5(5):424–430. https://doi.org/10.1038/NCLIMATE2563
Petley DN (2012) The Siachen Glacier avalanche (138 people killed) was an ice-rock avalanche. https://blogs.agu.org/landslideblog/2012/04/12/the-Siachen-glacier-avalanche-135-people-killed-was-actually-alandslide/
Piacentini D, Troiani F, Daniele G, Pizziolo M (2018) Historical geospatial database for landslide analysis: the Catalogue of Landslide Occurrences in the Emilia-Romagna Region (CLOCKER). Landslides 15(4):811–822. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-018-0962-8
Qi W, Liu JG, Yang H, Zhu XP, Tian Y, Jiang X, Huang X, Feng L (2020) Large uncertainties in runoff estimations of GLDAS versions 2.0 and 2.1 in China. Earth Space Sci 7(1):1–29. https://doi.org/10.1029/2019EA000829
Qiu HJ, Zhu YR, Zhou WQ, Sun HS, He JY, Liu ZJ (2022) Influence of DEM resolution on landslide simulation performance based on the Scoops3D model. Geomat Nat Haz Risk 13(1):1663–1681. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475705.2022.2097451
Rankl M, Braun M (2016) Glacier elevation and mass changes over the Central Karakoram region estimated from TanDEM-X and SRTM/X-SAR digital elevation models. Ann Glaciol 57(71):273–281. https://doi.org/10.3189/2016AoG71A024
Ravanel L, Deline P (2011) Climate influence on rockfalls in high-Alpine steep rockwalls: the north side of the Aiguilles de Chamonix (Mont Blanc massif) since the end of the ‘Little Ice Age.’ Holocene 21(2):357–365. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959683610374887
Rgi C, Nosenko G (2017) Randolph Glacier Inventory (RGI)-A dataset of global glacier outlines: version6.0. Technical Report, Global Land Ice Measurements from Space
Robinson AC, Yin A, Manning CE, Harrison TM, Zhang SH, Wang XF (2007) Cenozoic evolution of the eastern Pamir: implications for strain-accommodation mechanisms at the western end of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen. Geol Soc Am Bull 119(7–8):882–896. https://doi.org/10.1130/B25981.1
Rolland C (2003) Spatial and seasonal variations of air temperature lapse rates in Alpine regions. J Clim 16(7):1032–1046. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0442(2003)016%3c1032:SASVOA%3e2.0.CO;2
Rossi M, Witt A, Guzzetti F, Malamud BD, Peruccacci S (2010) Analysis of historical landslide time series in the Emilia-Romagna region, northern Italy. Earth Surf Proc Land 35(10):1123–1137. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1858
Schär C, Frei C, Lüthi D, Davies HC (1996) Surrogate climate change scenarios for regional climate models. Geophys Res Lett 23(6):669–672. https://doi.org/10.1029/96GL00265
Schneider JF (2004) Risk assessment of remote geohazards in central and southern Pamir, Tajikistan. Workshop, Bishkek Kyrgyzstan, pp:164–169
Schulz J, Albert P, Behr HD, Caprion D, Zelenka A (2008) Operational climate monitoring from space: the EUMETSAT Satellite Application Facility on Climate Monitoring (CM-SAF). Atmos Chem Phys 9(5):1687–1709. https://doi.org/10.5194/acpd-8-8517-2008
Seneviratne SI (2012) Changes in climate extremes and their impacts on the natural physical environment. Cambridge University Press pp:109–230. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139177245.006
Seong YB, Owen LA, Yi C, Finkel RC, Schoenbohm L (2009) Geomorphology of anomalously high glaciated mountains at the northwestern end of Tibet: Muztag Ata and Kongur Shan. Geomorphology 103(2):227–250. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2008.04.025
Shi XH, Xu XD (2008) Interdecadal trend turning of global terrestrial temperature and precipitation during 1951–2002. Prog Nat Sci-Mater Int 18(11):1383–1393. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pnsc.2008.06.002
Tanyaş H, Van Westen CJ, Allstadt KE, Jessee MAN, Görüm T, Jibson RW, Godt JW, Sato HP, Schmitt RG, Marc O, Hovius N (2017) Presentation and analysis of a worldwide database of earthquake-induced landslide inventories. J Geophys Res Earth Surf 122(10):1991–2015. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JF004236
Veh G, Korup O, Walz A (2020) Hazard from Himalayan glacier lake outburst floods. Proc Natl Acad Sci 117(2):907–912. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1914898117
Wang LY, Qiu HJ, Zhou WQ, Zhu YR, Liu ZJ, Ma SY, Yang DD, Tang BZ (2022) The post-failure spatiotemporal deformation of certain translational landslides may follow the pre-failure pattern. Remote Sens 14(10):2333. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14102333
Wirz V, Geertsema M, Gruber S, Purves RS (2016) Temporal variability of diverse mountain permafrost slope movements derived from multi-year daily GPS data, Mattertal. Switzerland Landslides 13(1):67–83. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-014-0544-3
Yan L, Liu X (2014) Has climatic warming over the Tibetan Plateau paused or continued in recent years? Earth Ocean Atmos Sci 1:13–28
Yao J, Chen Y, Guan X, Zhao Y, Chen J, Mao W (2022) Recent climate and hydrological changes in a mountain-basin system in Xinjiang, China. Earth-Sci Rev 226:1–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2022.103957
Yao JQ, Chen YN, Yang Q (2015) Spatial and temporal variability of water vapor pressure in the arid region of northwest China, during 1961–2011. Theoret Appl Climatol 123(3–4):683–691. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-015-1373-6
Yao JQ, Yang Q, Mao WY, Zhao Y, Xu XB (2016) Precipitation trend-elevation relationship in arid regions of China. Global Planet Change 143:1–9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2016.05.007
Yao TD, Xue YD, Chen DL, Chen FH, Thompson L, Cui P, Toshio K, Lau WKM, Lettenmaier D, Mosbrugger V, Zhang RH, Xu BQ, Dozier J, Gillespie T, Gu Y, Kang SC, Piao SL, Sugimoto S, Ueno KC, Wang L, Wang WC, Zhang F, Sheng YW, Guo WD, Ailikun YXX, Ma YM, Shen SSP, Su ZB, Chen F, Liang SL, Liu YM, SinghVP YK, Yang DQ, Zhao XQ, Qian Y, Zhang Y, Li Q (2019) Recent third pole’s rapid warming accompanies cryospheric melt and water cycle intensification and interactions between monsoon and environment: multidisciplinary approach with observations, modeling, and analysis. Bull Am Meteor Soc 100(3):423–444. https://doi.org/10.1175/BAMS-D-17-0057.1
Yuan ZD, Chen J, Owen LA, Hedrick KA, Caffee MW, Li WQ, Schoenbohm LM, Robinson AC (2013) Nature and timing of large landslides within an active orogen, eastern Pamir, China. Geomorphology 182:49–65. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.10.028
Zaginaev V, Ballesteros-Canvas JA, Erokhin S, Matov E, Petrakov D, Stoffel M (2016) Reconstruction of glacial lake outburst floods in northern Tien Shan: implications for hazard assessment. Geomorphology 269:75–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.06.028
Zhang FY, Chen WW, Liu G, Liang SY, Kang C, He FG (2012) Relationships between landslide types and topographic attributes in a loess catchment. China J Mt Sci 9(6):742–751. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-012-2377-7
Zhang GQ, Yao TD, Xie HJ, Wang WC, Yang W (2015) An inventory of glacial lakes in the Third Pole region and their changes in response to global warming. Glob Planet Change 131:148–157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2015.05.013
Zhang Y, Gu J, Liu S, Wang X, Jiang Z, Wei J, Zheng Y (2022) Spatial pattern of the debris-cover effect and its role in the Hindu Kush-Pamir-Karakoram-Himalaya glaciers. J Hydrol 615:128613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2022.128613
Zhou WQ, Qiu HJ, Wang LY, Pei YQ, Tang BZ, Ma SY, Yang DD, Cao MM (2022) Combining rainfall-induced shallow landslides and subsequent debris flows for hazard chain prediction. CATENA 213:106199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2022.106199
Zou Q, Cui P, Jiang H, Wang J, Zhou B (2020) Analysis of regional river blocking by debris flows in response to climate change. Sci Total Environ 741(7):140262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.140262
Acknowledgements
This work was funded by the International Science and Technology Cooperation Program of China (Grant No. 2018YFE0100100), The Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (STEP) (Grant No. 2019QZKK0902), National Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 42271078) and Natural Science Basic Research Program of Shaanxi (Grant No. 2021JC-40). We would also like to thank Engineer Zhiyuang Feng from the Administration of Natural Resources of Kashgar for his assistance in the fieldwork.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no competing interests.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Pei, Y., Qiu, H., Zhu, Y. et al. Elevation dependence of landslide activity induced by climate change in the eastern Pamirs. Landslides 20, 1115–1133 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-023-02030-w
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-023-02030-w