Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Debris flow behavior during the September 2013 rainstorm event in the Colorado Front Range, USA

  • Original paper
  • Published:
Landslides Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Debris flows are highly unpredictable and mechanically chaotic phenomena that can spread or branch away from an expected path or pre-existing channel, a phenomenon termed avulsion. While avulsion is expected to occur over long time periods on mature debris fans, it can also occur on short time scales and outside of active portions of fans. This was the case during the 9–13 September 2013 rainstorm event that triggered over 1000 debris flows in the Colorado Front Range. This research examines the geomorphic and topographic characteristics of debris flows during this event to identify the controlling variables of avulsion during singular events. Avulsion was observed in 1/3 of the debris flows, which were classified into 5 distinct behaviors and thus hazard implications, including directional change, distributary, split, free spreading, and braided. Debris flows that avulsed were twice as long and 6 times more likely to have path obstructions than non-avulsed paths. Additionally, locations along a debris-flow path with low lateral confinement and decreasing slope angles were more prone to avulsion. The high frequency of avulsed debris flows during the 2013 rainstorm event emphasizes the importance of considering avulsion potential during debris-flow mitigation design. The common characteristics of avulsed flows highlighted here could be incorporated into future hazard modeling efforts.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4
Fig. 5
Fig. 6
Fig. 7

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Baum RL, Jones ES, Alvioli M, Coe JA, Kean JW, Godt JW (2016) Map and model input and output data covering N 40.0° – 40.375° and W 105.25° – 105.625° in the northern Colorado Front Range for analysis of debris flow initiation resulting from the storm of September 9 – 13, 2013: U.S. Geological Survey data release. https://doi.org/10.5066/F7ZW1J08

  • Baum RL, Scheevel CR, Jones ES (2019) Constraining parameter uncertainty in modeling debris-flow initiation during the September 2013 Colorado Front Range storm. In Association of Environmental and Engineering Geologists; special publication 28. Colorado School of Mines. Arthur Lakes Library. https://doi.org/10.25676/11124/173212

  • Bennet MF (2013a) Colorado congressional delegation, governor mark access to new emergency transportation funding: 21 October 2013 press release by Michael F. Senator for Colorado, Bennet, U.S

  • Bennet MF (2013b) Bennet, Udall welcome $62.8 million from HUD for flood recovery efforts: 5 December 2013 press release by Michael F. Bennet, U.S. Senator for Colorado

  • Birkeland PW, Shroba RR, Burns SF, Price AB, Tonkin PJ (2003) Integrating soils and geomorphology in mountains—an example from the Front Range of Colorado. Geomorphology. 55:329–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-555X(03)00148-X

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Blair TC, McPherson JG (1998) Recent debris-flow processes and resultant form and facies of the Dolomite alluvial fan, Owens Valley, California. J Sediment Res 68:800–818. https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.68.800

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cline ML, Cook JP, Pearthree PA, Youberg A, Webb RH (2008) Geologic mapping of debris-flow deposits in the Santa Catalina Mountains. Pima County, Arizona

    Google Scholar 

  • Coe JA, Kean JW, Godt JW, Baum RL, Jones ES, Gochis DJ, Anderson GS (2014) New insights into debris-flow hazards from an extraordinary event in the Colorado Front Range. GSA Today 24:4–10. https://doi.org/10.1130/GSATG214A.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Corominas J (1996) The angle of reach as a mobility index for small and large landslides. Can Geotech J 33:260–271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Haas T, Van Den Berg W, Braat L, Kleinhans MG (2016) Autogenic avulsion, channelization and backfilling dynamics of debris-flow fans. Sedimentology. 63:1596–1619. https://doi.org/10.1111/sed.12275

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Haas T, Densmore AL, Stoffel M, Suwa H, Imaizumi F, Ballesteros-Cánovas JA, Wasklewicz T (2018) Avulsions and the spatio-temporal evolution of debris-flow fans. Earth Sci Rev 177:53–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earscirev.2017.11.007

  • Dickinson WR, Klute MA, Hayes MJ, Janecke SU, Lundin ER, Mckittrick MA, Olivares MD (1988) Paleogeographic and paleotectonic setting of Laramide sedimentary basins in the central Rocky Mountain region. Bull Geol Soc Am. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1988)100<1023:PAPSOL>2.3.CO;2

  • Godt JW, Coe JA, Kean JW, Baum RL, Jones ES, Harp EL, Staley DM, Barnhart WD (2014) Landslides in the northern Colorado Front Range caused by rainfall, September 11–13, 2013: U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 2013–3114, 6 p. https://doi.org/10.3133/fs20133114

  • Iverson RM (2014) Debris flows: behaviour and hazard assessment. Geol Today 30:15–20

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levin MH, Marr JW (1963) Ecosystems of the East Slope of the Front Range in Colorado. Bull Torrey Bot Club 90:268. https://doi.org/10.2307/2483242

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGuire LA, Rengers FK, Kean JW, Coe JA, Mirus BB, Baum RL, Godt JW (2016) Elucidating the role of vegetation in the initiation of rainfall-induced shallow landslides: insights from an extreme rainfall event in the Colorado Front Range. Geophys Res Lett 43:9084–9092. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016GL070741

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pederson CA (2014) Compensational behavior of three debris-flow fans in southern Colorado (Doctoral dissertation, Colorado School of Mines. Arthur Lakes Library). http://hdl.handle.net/11124/472

  • Pederson CA, Santi PM, Pyles DR (2015) Relating the compensational stacking of debris-flow fans to characteristics of their underlying stratigraphy: implications for geologic hazard assessment and mitigation. Geomorphology. 248:47–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2015.06.030

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reitz MD, Jerolmack DJ (2012) Experimental alluvial fan evolution: channel dynamics, slope controls, and shoreline growth. J Geophys Res Earth Surf 117. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002261

  • Rengers FK, McGuire LA, Coe JA, Kean JW, Baum RL, Staley DM, Godt JW (2016) The influence of vegetation on debris-flow initiation during extreme rainfall in the northern Colorado Front Range. Geology 44:823–826. https://doi.org/10.1130/G38096.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Riley SJ, DeGloria SD, Elliot R (1999) Index that quantifies topographic heterogeneity. Int J Therm Sci 5:23–27

    Google Scholar 

  • Santi PM, Pyles DR, Pederson CA (2017) Debris flow avulsion. Int J Eros Control Eng 10:67–73

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schürch P, Densmore AL, Rosser NJ, McArdell BW (2011) A novel debris-flow fan evolution model based on debris flow monitoring and lidartopography. In: Fifth International Conference on Debris-Flow Hazards Mitigation–Mitigation, Mechanics, Prediction and Assessment (Ed. R. Genevois,D.L. Hamilton and A. Prestininzi), 263–272. Casa Editrice Universita La Sapienza, Padua.

  • Straub KM, Paola C, Mohrig D, Wolinsky MA, George T (2009) Compensational stacking of channelized sedimentary deposits. J Sediment Res 79:673–688. https://doi.org/10.2110/jsr.2009.070

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suwa H, Okuda S (1983) Deposition of debris flows on a fan surface Mt. Yakedake. Japan. Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie. Supplementband 46:79–101

  • Tiranti D, Cremonini R, Asprea I, Marco F (2016) Driving factors for torrential mass-movements occurrence in the Western Alps. Front Earth Sci 4. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2016.00016

  • Whipple KX, Dunne T (1992) The influence of debris-flow rheology on fan morphology, Owens Valley, California. Geol Soc Am Bull. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1992)104<0887:TIODFR>2.3.CO;2

  • Wilford DJ, Sakals ME, Innes JL, Sidle RC, Bergerud WA (2004) Recognition of debris flow, debris flood and flood hazard through watershed morphometrics. Landslides. 1:61–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-003-0002-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Geology and Geological Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, 1516 Illinois St, Golden, CO, 80401, USA

    Lauren N. Schaefer, Paul M. Santi & Troy C. Duron

Authors
  1. Lauren N. Schaefer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Paul M. Santi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Troy C. Duron
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Paul M. Santi.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Supplementary information

ESM 1

(XLSX 68 kb)

ESM 2

(XLSX 12 kb)

ESM 3

(XLSX 12 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Schaefer, L.N., Santi, P.M. & Duron, T.C. Debris flow behavior during the September 2013 rainstorm event in the Colorado Front Range, USA. Landslides 18, 1585–1595 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01590-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-020-01590-5

Keywords

Search

Navigation