Abstract
Decreases in the diversity of farmland communities reported at various scales and across taxonomic groups have fueled searches for ultimate reasons, primarily focusing on aspects of agricultural land use. However, the importance of individual external factors as drivers of population dynamics may vary across populations. We used density estimates of the European hare (Lepus europaeus) from a study site near Czempiń, western Poland, covering a time series of 50 years, to analyse long-term trends in overwinter survival. We employed an autoregressive population model to test associations between cereals yields (as a proxy for agricultural land use), fox predation, winter climate and hare density, and compared our results to those reported for a Danish population exposed to an oceanic climate and a Czech population exposed to a more continental climate. We found that at the Polish study site, hare density was negatively associated with fox density, but there were no associations with cereals yield or winter climate. Using generalized additive models, we found nonlinear trends in autumn and spring hare densities also showing a gradual increase in overwinter survival from the 1970s to 2009. We did not detect any decreased juvenile productivity over the study period. We conclude that survival during the breeding season was the most significant demographic trait driving hare dynamics. Our study provides evidence of strong spatial variability in the importance of individual extrinsic factors as drivers of hare population trends.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
References
Balestrieri A, Gazzola A, Formenton G, Canova L (2019) Long-term impact of agricultural practices on the diversity of small mammal communities: a case study based on owl pellets. Environ Monit Assess 191:725. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-019-7910-5
Banerjee S, Walder F, Büchi L, Meyer M, Held AY, Gattinger A, Keller T, Charles R, van der Heijden MGA (2019) Agricultural intensification reduces microbial network complexity and the abundance of keystone taxa in roots. ISME J 13:1722–1736. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41396-019-0383-2
Benton TG, Vickery JA, Wilson JD (2003) Farmland biodiversity: is habitat heterogeneity the key? Trends Ecol Evol 18:182–188. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00011-9
Boissinot A, Besnard A, Lourdais O (2019) Amphibian diversity in farmlands: combined influences of breeding-site and landscape attributes in western France. Agric Ecosyst Environ 269:51–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2018.09.016
Chamberlain DE, Fuller RJ, Bunce RGH, Duckworth JC, Shrubb M (2000) Changes in the abundance of farmland birds in relation to the timing of agricultural intensification in England and Wales. J Appl Ecol 37:771–788. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2664.2000.00548.x
Ciaranek D (2014) Variability of the thermal continentality index in Central Europe. Air Water Comp Env 2014:307–313
Contesse P, Hegglin D, Gloor S, Bontadina F, Deplazes P (2004) The diet of urban foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and the availability of anthropogenic food in the city of Zurich, Switzerland. Mamm Biol 69:81–95. https://doi.org/10.1078/1616-5047-00123
Cukor J, Havránek F, Linda R, Bukovjan K, Painter MS, Hart V (2018) First findings of brown hare (Lepus europaeus) reintroduction in relation to seasonal impact. PLoS ONE 13:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205078
Feber RE, Bell J, Johnson PJ, Firbank LG, Macdonald DW (1998) The effects of organic farming on surface-active spider (Araneae) assemblages in wheat in Southern England, UK. J Arachnol 26:190–202
Gossner MM, Lewinsohn TM, Kahl T, Grassein F, Boch S, Prati D, Birkhofer K, Renner SC, Sikorski J, Wubet T, Arndt H, Baumgartner V, Blaser S, Blüthgen N, Börschig C, Buscot F, Diekötter T, Jorge LR, Jung K, Keyel AC, Klein AM, Klemmer S, Krauss J, Lange M, Müller J, Overmann J, Pašalić E, Penone C, Perović DJ, Purschke O, Schall P, Socher SA, Sonnemann I, Tschapka M, Tscharntke T, Türke M, Venter PC, Weiner CN, Werner M, Wolters V, Wurst S, Westphal C, Fischer M, Weisser WW, Allan E (2016) Land-use intensification causes multitrophic homogenization of grassland communities. Nature 540:266–269. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature20575
Goszczyński J (1974) Studies on the food of foxes. Acta Theriol (Warsz) 19:1–18. https://doi.org/10.4098/at.arch.74-1
Goszczyński J, Wasilewski M (1992) Studies on the European hare. 46. Predation of foxes on a hare population in central Poland. Acta Theriol (Warsz) 37:329–338. https://doi.org/10.4098/AT.arch.92-33
Gregory RD, Škorpilová J, Voříšek P, Butler S (2019) An analysis of trends, uncertainty and species selection shows contrasting trends of widespread forest and farmland birds in Europe. Ecol Indic 103:676–687. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.04.064
Gupta A, Singh UB, Sahu PK, Paul S, Kumar A, Malviya D, Singh S, Kuppusamy P, Singh P, Paul D, Rai JP, Singh HV, Manna MC, Crusberg TC, Kumar A, Saxena AK (2022) Linking soil microbial diversity to modern agriculture practices: a review. Int J Environ Res Publ Health 19:3141. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19053141
Hallett TB, Coulson T, Pilkington JG, Clutton-Brock TH, Pemberton JM, Grenfell BT (2004) Why large-scale climate indices seem to predict ecological processes better than local weather. Nature 430:71–75. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02708
Heldbjerg H, Sunde P, Fox AD (2018) Continuous population declines for specialist farmland birds 1987–2014 in Denmark indicates no halt in biodiversity loss in agricultural habitats. Bird Conserv Int 28:278–292. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959270916000654
Holyoak M, Heath SK (2016) The integration of climate change, spatial dynamics, and habitat fragmentation: a conceptual overview. Integr Zool 11:40–59. https://doi.org/10.1111/1749-4877.12167
Hurrell JW (1995) Decadal trends in the North Atlantic oscillation: regional temperatures and precipitation. Science 269:676–679. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.269.5224.676
Hurrell J, Phillips A, National Center for Atmospheric Research Staff (2023) The climate data guide: Hurrell North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) Index (station-based). Climate analysis section, NCAR, Boulder, USA. https://climatedataguide.ucar.edu/sites/default/files/2023-01/nao_station_djfm_0.txt. Accessed 7 June 2023
Hušek J, Boudreau MR, Panek M (2021) Hunter estimates of game density as a simple and efficient source of information for population monitoring: a comparison to targeted survey methods. PLoS One 16:e0256580. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0256580
Kuijper DPJ, Oosterveld E, Wymenga E (2009) Decline and potential recovery of the European grey partridge (Perdix perdix) population-a review. Eur J Wildl Res 55:455–463. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-009-0311-2
Łabudzki L, Kamieniarz R, Górecki G, Skubis J, Wierzbicka A (2009) Hunting in Poland as part of the sustained development of rural areas. Folia For Pol Ser A 51:85–90
Lupatini M, Korthals GW, de Hollander M, Janssens TKS, Kuramae EE (2017) Soil microbiome is more heterogeneous in organic than in conventional farming system. Front Microbiol 7:1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.02064
Matson PA, Parton WJ, Power AG, Swift MJ (1997) Agricultural intensification and ecosystem properties. Science 277:504–509. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.277.5325.504
Mikolášková K (2009) Continental and oceanic precipitation régime in Europe. Cent Eur J Geosci 1:176–182. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10085-009-0013-8
Ottersen G, Planque B, Belgrano A, Post E, Reid PC, Stenseth NC (2001) Ecological effects of the North Atlantic Oscillation. Oecologia 128:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s004420100655
Palo RT (2014) Tick-borne encephalitis transmission risk: its dependence on host population dynamics and climate effects. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 14:346–352. https://doi.org/10.1089/vbz.2013.1386
Panek M (2018) Habitat factors associated with the decline in brown hare abundance in Poland in the beginning of the 21st century. Ecol Indic 85:915–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2017.11.036
Panek M (2013) Long-term changes in the feeding pattern of red foxes Vulpes vulpes and their predation on brown hares Lepus europaeus in western Poland. Eur J Wildl Res 59:581–586. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-013-0709-8
Panek M (2006) Monitoring grey partridge (Perdix perdix) populations in Poland: methods and results. Wildl Biol Pract 2:72–78. https://doi.org/10.2461/wbp.2006.2.9
Panek M, Budny M (2017) Variation in the feeding pattern of red foxes in relation to changes in anthropogenic resource availability in a rural habitat of western Poland. Mamm Biol 82:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2016.09.002
Pavliska P, Riegert J, Grill S, Šálek M (2018) The effect of landscape heterogeneity on population density and habitat preferences of the European hare (Lepus europaeus) in contrasting farmlands. Mamm Biol 88:8–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2017.11.003
Peña-Angulo D, Reig-Gracia F, Domínguez-Castro F, Revuelto J, Aguilar E, van der Schrier G, Vicente-Serrano SM (2020) ECTACI: European climatology and trend atlas of climate indices (1979–2017). J Geophys Res Atmos 125:1–17. https://doi.org/10.1029/2020JD032798
Pielowski Z (1969) Studies on the European Hare. XXIII. Belt assessment as a reliable method of determining the numbers of hares. Acta Theriol (Warsz) 14:133–140
Pielowski Z (1990) Über die Abhängigkeit der Besatzdichte und anderer populationsparameter des Hasen von der Agrarstructur und landwirtschaftlichen Aktivitäten. Beiträge Zur Jagd- Und Wildforschung 17:147–156
Pielowski Z, Kamieniarz R, Panek M (1993) Raport o zwierzętach łownych w Polsce [Report about game animals in Poland]. Bibli- oteka Monitoringu Środowiska PIOŚ, Warszawa
Pinheiro J, Bates D, R Core Team (2023) nlme: linear and nonlinear mixed effects models. R package version 3.1–162
Pinkowski M (1995) Appraisal of the belt assessment technique for estimating hare numbers at low population densities. In: Pielowski Z (ed) Hare – International Symposium, Czempiń ‘92. Polish Hunting Association, Warsaw, pp 263–268
Potts SG, Biesmeijer JC, Kremen C, Neumann P, Schweiger O, Kunin WE (2010) Global pollinator declines: trends, impacts and drivers. Trends Ecol Evol 25:345–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2010.01.007
Raven PH, Wagner DL (2021) Agricultural intensification and climate change are rapidly decreasing insect biodiversity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 118:1–6. https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.2002548117
Reynolds JC, Stoate C, Brockless MH, Aebischer NJ, Tapper SC (2010) The consequences of predator control for brown hares (Lepus europaeus) on UK farmland. Eur J Wildl Res 56:541–549. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-009-0355-3
Schmidt NM, Asferg T, Forchhammer MC (2004) Long-term patterns in European brown hare population dynamics in Denmark: effects of agriculture, predation and climate. BMC Ecol 4:1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-6785-4-15
Seiler S, Helldin JO, Seiler C (2004) Road mortality in Swedish mammals: results of a drivers’ questionnaire. Wildl Biol 10:225–233
Smith RK, Jennings NV, Harris S (2005) A quantitative analysis of the abundance and demography of European hares Lepus europaeus in relation to habitat type, intensity of agriculture and climate. Mamm Rev 35:1–24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2907.2005.00057.x
Stenseth NC, Ottersen G, Hurrell JW, Mysterud A, Lima M, Chan KS, Yoccoz NG, Ådlandsvik B (2003) Studying climate effects on ecology through the use of climate indices: the North Atlantic Oscillation, El Niño Southern Oscillation and beyond. Proc R Soc B 270:2087–2096. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2003.2415
Tapper SC, Barnes RFW (1986) Influence of farming practice on the ecology of the brown hare (Lepus europaeus). J Appl Ecol 23:39–52. https://doi.org/10.2307/2403079
Tkadlec E, Zbořil J, Losík J, Gregor P, Lisická L (2006) Winter climate and plant productivity predict abundances of small herbivores in central Europe. Clim Res 32:99–108. https://doi.org/10.3354/cr032099
Voigt U, Siebert U (2020) Survival rates on pre-weaning European hares (Lepus europaeus) in an intensively used agricultural area. Eur J Wildl Res 66:67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-020-01403-z
Warren MS, Maes D, van Swaay CAM, Goffart P, van Dyck H, Bourn NAD, Wynhoff I, Hoare D, Ellis S (2021) The decline of butterflies in Europe: problems, significance, and possible solutions. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 118:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1073/PNAS.2002551117
Whalen JK, Parmelee RW, Edwards CA (1998) Population dynamics of earthworm communities in corn agroecosystems receiving organic or inorganic fertilizer amendments. Biol Fertil Soils 27:400–407. https://doi.org/10.1007/s003740050450
Wood SN (2017) Generalized additive models: an introduction with R, 2nd edn. Chapman and Hall/CRC, Boca Raton
Yang B, Banerjee S, Herzog C, Ramírez AC, Dahlin P, van der Heijden MGA (2021) Impact of land use type and organic farming on the abundance, diversity, community composition and functional properties of soil nematode communities in vegetable farming. Agric Ecosyst Environ 318:107488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2021.107488
Acknowledgements
We thank Marco Zaccaroni, Claude Fischer and two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on the previous version of the manuscript. David Hardekopf kindly corrected the English.
Funding
This work was financially supported by the Ministry of Culture of the Czech Republic (DKRVO 2024–2028/6.I.a, National Museum of the Czech Republic, 00023272).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Jan Hušek formulated the idea, analysed data and wrote the manuscript, Marek Panek provided data and editorial advice. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Hušek, J., Panek, M. Demographic and external drivers of European hare (Lepus europaeus) population dynamics in western Poland from 1960 to 2009. Eur J Wildl Res 70, 14 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-024-01765-8
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10344-024-01765-8