Introduction

Life satisfaction, describing students’ own perception of the quality of life according to their own criteria (Diener et al., 1985), has been identified as being an important indicator of students’ well-being (Lyons & Jiang, 2022; Proctor et al., 2009). It has been shown to serve as a significant buffer against the adverse impacts of stress and the development of psychological disorders (Diener & Ryan, 2009; Proctor et al., 2009). Additionally, it has been found to related to better physical health (Zullig et al., 2005), reduced risk-taking behaviour (Piko & Keresztes, 2006) and successful education transitions (Salmela-Aro & Tuominen-Soini, 2010), for example. However, there is a growing concern worldwide about students’ wellbeing (e.g., Walburg, 2014; Yang & Chen, 2016; Vinter et al., 2021). For example, in Finland, the trend depicting students’ life satisfaction seems to be declining. Between 2017 and 2023, the percentage of upper secondary school students who reported being satisfied with their lives decreased by over ten percentage points (OECD, 2019; Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, 2022). In 2023, only 66% of secondary school students expressed satisfaction with their lives (Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, 2022).

Previous research has shown that students’ experiences in educational settings have a central role in students’ overall life satisfaction (Danielsen et al., 2009; Gempp & González-Carrasco, 2021; Proctor et al., 2009). Indeed, it has been established that functional peer relationships within the school context constitute the most valued aspect of students’ scholastic journey spilling over into other areas of life (El Bouhaddani et al., 2018; Fuller et al., 1999, Gristy, 2012; Gowing, 2019; Jørgensen, 2016; Shaheen et al., 2014). Peer support is a resource that builds students’ sense of relatedness among peers (Gowing, 2019; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ulmanen et al., 2016) while also contributing to students’ study engagement experiences (Ulmanen et al., 2022a, 2022b). Moreover, these factors have been found to be closely linked to students’ overall life satisfaction (Danielsen et al., 2009; Lee & Lee, 2023; Li and Yu-fang, 2016; Lyons & Jiang, 2022; Gempp & González-Carrasco, 2021). However, it remains unclear what the underlying mechanism explaining these relationships is, which has left us with inadequate means to enhance students’ life satisfaction. Therefore, this study examined whether the effect of peer support on life satisfaction is mediated by students’ sense of relatedness in peer interaction or their study engagement experiences.

The impact of the educational experiences on students' life satisfaction

Study-related peer support refers to the social resources available in the peer interaction that helps students to cope with challenging tasks or negative events and buffers against potential negative individual or environmental factors in studying (Cohen & Syme, 1985). Various forms of study-related peer support have been recognized (House, 1981). Emotional support refers to caring, trust, encouragement, and acknowledgement shared between peers, while informational support is characterized by advice, feedback, affirmation and problem-solving with peers (Malecki & Demaray, 2002).

Research shows a strong association between study-related peer support and students’ life satisfaction (Danielsen et al., 2009; Li and Yu-fang, 2016; Lyons & Jiang, 2022). However, the association between the constructs is not necessarily direct, that is, the support among peers might not as such lead to higher satisfaction with life, but the association is likely to be mediated through several factors. For example, self-determination theory emphasizes the significance of social resources shared between peers as a key factor in fulfilling students' sense of relatedness (Ryan & Deci, 2000). A sense of relatedness is a separate construct from social support referring to the extent to which students feel personally accepted, respected, and connected with their peers that they care about (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2020). It represents a fundamental need that is essential for individuals' positive emotional development (Ryan, 2001; Ryan & Deci, 2000). Therefore, when students support each other, they are not merely seeking help for schoolwork; they are also striving to fulfill their need for a sense of relatedness among peers (Kiefer et al., 2015; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ulmanen et al., 2016; Wentzel et al., 2016). Thus, it can be assumed that if students can satisfy their need for relatedness through study-related peer support (e.g., Estell & Perdue, 2013), it is likely to strengthen their life satisfaction (e.g., Huang, 2020).

In addition to enhancing students' overall well-being by promoting a sense of relatedness, various forms of peer support have the potential to enhance students’ life satisfaction through their study engagement experiences. Study engagement includes the components of energy, dedication, and absorption in studying (Schaufeli et al., 2002a, 2002b). Energy signifies mental resilience and effort investment, dedication involves enthusiasm and finding meaning in studies, while absorption entails feelings of competence and deep concentration and enjoyment leading to a swift passage of time. Previous research has shown that emotional and information study-related support shared between peers is an important facilitator of students’ study engagement (Furrer & Skinner, 2003; Liu et al., 2016; Rubin et al., 2008; Ulmanen et al., 2016, 2022a, 2023; Wang & Eccles, 2012). When students receive peer support and feel capable of providing it, they tend to perceive higher levels of study engagement. Additionally, given the central role of studying in students’ lives, the experiences derived from studying has been found to impact their wellbeing in other areas of life. Positive experiences in studying, such as finding schoolwork as meaningful or displaying enthusiasm towards it, have been found to reduce risk of suffering from depression symptoms and contribute several positive attributes such as better academic achievement, positive emotions, and overall life satisfaction (see Eldor et al., 2020; Gempp & González-Carrasco, 2021; Lewis et al., 2011; Upadyaya & Salmela-Aro, 2013).

Taken together, research has shown that students’ study engagement (Kiuru et al., 2008; Pyhältö et al, 2010; Rubin et al., 2008; Ryan, 2001; Shih, 2015) and life satisfaction (Lee & Lee, 2023; Li and Yu-fang, 2016; Lyons & Jiang, 2022) are highly embedded in social interaction with peers. Therefore, it is reasonable to assume that within the educational context, peer support which enhances students’ sense of relatedness, can further contribute to better wellbeing both in studying (i.e., study engagement) and more generally (i.e., life satisfaction) (e.g., Gempp & Gonzalez-Carrasco, 2021; Huang, 2020; Oberle et al., 2011). However, according to our knowledge, these relationships have not been studied together before. In this study, we aim to bridge the gap in research by exploring the role of social support from peers in upper secondary school students’ sense of relatedness, study engagement, and life satisfaction.

Study aims and hypotheses

The aim of the study was to understand how peer support for studying contributes to upper secondary education students’ sense of relatedness, study engagement and life satisfaction. More specifically, if the students’ sense of relatedness and study engagement mediates the association between the peer support and life satisfaction. The following hypotheses were tested (see Fig. 1):

  • H1) Peer support is positively related to a sense of relatedness (Kiefer et al., 2015; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Wentzel et al., 2016), study engagement (Liu et al., 2016; Ulmanen et al., 2022a; Wang & Eccles, 2012), and life satisfaction (Li and Yu-fang, 2016; Lee & Lee, 2023; Lyons & Jiang, 2022),

  • H2) Study engagement is positively related to life satisfaction and mediates the association between peer support and life satisfaction (Lewis et al., 2011).

  • H3) Sense of relatedness is positively related to life satisfaction and mediates the association between peer support and life satisfaction (Gempp & González-Carrasco, 2021; Huang, 2020). In addition, sense of relatedness is positively related to study engagement and mediates the association between peer support and study engagement (Ulmanen et al., 2016).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Hypothetical model of the role of peer support in enhancing students’ sense of relatedness, study engagement and life satisfaction

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Methods

Upper secondary education in Finland

In Finland, entry into upper secondary education is at about the age of 16 after completing nine years of comprehensive school. This stage offers a choice between senior high school (academic track), vocational schools, or a combination of the two. The academic track focuses on theoretical subjects and provides a strong foundation for pursuing higher education degrees in various fields. It is a common pathway for students who aim to continue their education at university or in other tertiary institutions. The vocational track is designed to provide students with practical skills and knowledge for specific vocational fields. Graduates from the vocational track are equipped with the skills necessary to enter the workforce directly or to continue their education in higher vocational institutions or colleges. In 2020, 54% of Finnish adolescents who had completed their comprehensive schooling opted for the upper secondary academic track, while 39% pursued the vocational track (Statistics Finland, 2020).

Participants

The participants in the study were 293 upper secondary education students (average age 18). Of these, 76% were in the academic track (n = 222) and 24% in the vocational track (n = 69). Most of the participants identified as female (63%, n = 185), while 31% were male (n = 91). Of the participants 6% (n = 17), disclosed “other” as their gender or did not want to specify it. The participants were from across the country.

Data

The data for the study were gathered via an online survey at the end of the students’ second year of upper secondary education (May and June 2022). The data were a part of a larger longitudinal research project in which the students had already been involved for five years, since the seventh grade of comprehensive school (see http://www.learninginschool.fi/school-matters/ about this project). The students who gave their contact information and permission to be contacted (n = 761) regarding follow-up in the upper-secondary education were asked to participate in the study. A link to the online survey was sent to them via both SMS and email. All participants were fully informed about the study, and participation was completely voluntary. Their participation was also contingent on their informed, written consent. As an incentive for their involvement, four gift cards (€100 each for verkkokauppa.com) were drawn.

In Finland, ethical review is required for research involving interventions in the physical well-being of participants, deviations from informed consent principles, studying participants under the age of 15 without parental consent, exposure to abnormally intense stimuli, potential for lasting mental harm beyond typical life encounters, or posing security risks necessitates ethical review (Finnish Advisory Board on Research Integrity, 2009, p. 19). As this study did not meet any of these criteria, no ethics review was necessary.

Measurements

The peer support scale measured emotional and informational support shared among peers. It specifically targets learning activities such as cooperation in problem solving with peers, giving, and receiving positive responses to tasks with peers, encouraging peers to complete tasks (10 items, e.g. “I have the courage to offer my classmates help with their studies,” “I have the courage to ask others for help with my studies,” “My classmates’ encouragement inspires me in my studies”) (Rautanen et al., 2020). The Sense of relatedness scale measured students’ sense of intimacy and connection with students’ classmates they considered important (4 items, e.g. “The classmates that I like, also like me”, “I feel close to and connected with the classmates who are important to me”). The scale has been adapted and translated from the Basic Psychological Need Satisfaction scale (Van der Kaap-Deeder et al., 2020; see self-determination theory, Ryan & Deci, 2000). The Study engagement scale assessed students’ energy, dedication, and absorption in studying (9 items, e.g. “When I study, I feel like I am bursting with energy,” “I find my studies to be full of meaning and purpose,” “When I am studying, I forget everything else around me”). The scale has been adapted and translated from the Utrecht work engagement scale for students (UWES-S) (Schaufeli et al., 2002a). The Satisfaction with life scale assessed students’ perception of the quality of life according to their own criteria (5 items, e.g. “In most ways my life is close to my ideal”, “So far I have gotten the important things I want in life”). The scale was translated from the scale developed by Diener and his colleagues (1985). All scales were rated on a seven-point Likert scale (1 = fully disagree…0.7 = fully agree/1 = Not true at all to 7 = Very true). In addition, there were educational track (dummy coded with academic = 1 and vocational = 0) and gender (male = 1, female = 0). Means and alphas of the scales are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Observed Variables Correlations, their Means, Standard Deviations, and Cronbach’s Alphas
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Analysis

First, the factorial structure of each scale (study-related social support from peers, sense of relatedness, study engagement, and life satisfaction) was tested separately using confirmatory factor analyses (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002). Second, structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to test the hypothesized model (Fig. 1). We examined 1) the direct effect of peer support on students’ study engagement, sense of relatedness and life satisfaction, 2) the direct effects of sense of relatedness, and study engagement on students’ life satisfaction, and 3) the indirect effect of peer support on life satisfaction through sense of relatedness and study engagement. Additionally, the gender and educational tracks were controlled in this study to enhance the validity and accuracy of the estimated results. Finally, correlations between two of the residuals were added to the measurement models when they significantly improved the model and were considered substantively meaningful (see Fig. 2) (Byrne, 2012). Analyses were conducted using the version 8.00 of the statistical program Mplus (Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2017). Missing data were treated using full information maximum likelihood (FIML) which allows for the inclusion of all available data and yields unbiased estimates of the parameters when data are assumed to be missing at random (Schafer & Graham, 2002). Maximum likelihood estimation with robust standard errors and chi-square statistic were used to analyse data (MLR estimator, Muthén & Muthén, 1998–2017). The goodness-of-fit of the estimated standardized models were assessed using a Chi Square test, Comparative fit index (CFI), Tucker–Lewin Index (TLI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), and Standardized Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (SRMR) (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002). RMSEA below 0.08, SRMR below 0.05, and CFI and TLI above 0.95 indicate good fit of the model to the data (Cheung & Rensvold, 2002; Hooper et al., 2008). The fit-indices of measurement models for each variable are presented in Appendix 1.

Fig. 2
figure 2

SEM results of the study. Control variables (i.e., gender and educational track) were controlled for all the structural relationships among the key variables. Only statistically significant paths are described (p ≤ 0.001)

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Results

The descriptive statistics of the scales are presented in Table 1. In general, the students reported high levels of peer support and sense of relatedness, while the levels of life satisfaction and study engagement were lower. The correlations between the scales were positive and statistically significant. The correlation between study-related peer support and sense of relatedness was stronger than correlations between other scales. In other words, the stronger the students experienced being supported by their peers, the stronger they felt that the peers they cared for also cared for them. In addition, the students who experienced more vigour, dedication and absorption while studying, were more satisfied with their lives than students who had less such experiences.

According to the several fit indicators the hypothesized model (see Fig. 1 and Table 2) fit the data well (N = 293; χ2 = 618.44, df = 337, p = 0.000; CFI = 0.95; TLI = 0.94; RMSEA = 0.05; 90% CI = 0.05-0.06; SRMR = 0.06). The results partly supported hypothesis 1 by showing that peer support was directly related to sense of relatedness (0.70) and study engagement (0.47). This means that the more the students took heart to ask and offer help for their peers, the more they reported feeling close to the people they cared about and bursting with energy while studying, for example. The effect of peer support was slightly stronger on the sense of relatedness than on study engagement. However, the direct effect of peer support on life satisfaction was weak (0.06) and not statistically significant.

Table 2 Standardized direct and indirect estimates, confidence intervals, and p values of hypothesized model
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Further, the results supported hypotheses 2 and 3 by showing that study engagement (0.49) and sense of relatedness (0.27) were directly related to life satisfaction. The more students felt that their studying was meaningful for them and that the classmates they cared about also cared about them, the more they were satisfied with their life. Besides having a direct effect on life satisfaction, sense of relatedness and study engagement mediated the association between peer support and life satisfaction statistically significantly. In other words, peer support contributed to students' life satisfaction indirectly via sense of relatedness (0.19) and study engagement (0.23). However, in contrast to our hypothesis 3, the effect of sense of relatedness on study engagement (0.06) was not statistically significant. In addition, the sense of relatedness did not mediate the association between peer support and study engagement statistically significantly (0.05).

Gender had a positive, but quite small effect on students’ study engagement (0.12) and life satisfaction (0.19) meaning that males perceived higher levels of study engagement and life satisfaction compared to females. Gender did not explain the variation in students' perceptions of peer support or sense of relatedness. The effects of educational track on students’ perceptions of social support, study engagement, sense of relatedness and life satisfaction were not detected.

Discussion

Methodological limitations

This study has some limitations that need to be considered when interpreting the results.

First, although several fit indices (RMSEA, CFI, TLI, SRMR) indicated that the hypothesized model fit the data, according to the Chi square test, the model fit was not acceptable (Iacobucci, 2010; Miles & Shevlin, 2007). Second, the cross-sectional design of the study does not allow us to draw causal conclusions about the relationships between peer support, study engagement, sense of relatedness, and life satisfaction. Longitudinal studies are needed to examine cause-and-effect and potential reciprocal relations between the students’ educational experiences and life satisfaction. Third, the features of the Finnish education system and the low answering rate (38.5%) restrict the generalizability of the results to other socio-cultural educational contexts. Low answering rate caused bias on the sample: the research was mainly answered by girls in the academic track. Consequently, one must be cautious when making decisions about the results of the educational track and gender. Furthermore, it is also important to note that the data were collected during the COVID-19 pandemic, which might have affected the responses. These limitations highlight the need for further studies with a wider population and across cultural boundaries. Finally, our study relies on students' self-reported support. Employing multiple informants and methodologies to assess social processes would offer a more comprehensive understanding of social support and study well-being. It must also be considered that the scale for peer support has only been validated among Finnish students (e.g. Rautanen et al., 2020; Ulmanen et al., 2022a, 2022b). Further validation of the scales in other countries and school systems is needed.

Findings in the light of previous literature

The purpose of this study was to increase understanding of the impact of students’ socially embedded educational experience on their life satisfaction. The study extends previous research by examining how experiences of peer support for studying influences on the student sense of relatedness among peers in school, their study engagement, and their general life satisfaction beyond the school life.

The results showed that the peer support for studying contributed directly to the students’ sense of relatedness with peers in school and their study engagement, indicating that peer support for studying plays a dual role in socially embedded school experience among adolescents by contributing both studying as well as social wellbeing of the students i.e., relatedness. This suggests that on-task peer support provides a resource for cultivating learning and wellbeing in school simultaneously (Pyhältö et al., 2010). The effect of peer support was not directly related to students’ life satisfaction. Yet, further investigation showed that the relationship between peer support and the student life satisfaction beyond the school was fully mediated by students’ experiences of study engagement and sense of relatedness. This suggests that peer support for studying by itself is not sufficient for cultivating student life satisfaction beyond the school. In fact, there is evidence that negative emotions about studying can spread in close peer relationships (e.g., Kiuru et al., 2008; Ulmanen et al., 2022a, 2022b). However, our results do suggest that peer support in studying can enhance secondary education students’ life satisfaction through two distinct pathways, a studying-related, and a sense of relatedness pathway (Gempp & González-Carrasco, 2021; Hakimzadeh et al., 2016; Huang, 2020; Lewis et al., 2011). In the studying-related pathway, the students share and seek study-related on-task social support from their peers, that cultivates study engagement characterized by finding their studying to be meaningful, inspiration and mental resilience when facing challenges in studies (Liu et al., 2016; Ulmanen et al., 2022a, 2022b; Wang & Eccles, 2012). This has the potential to positively influence their overall life satisfaction, as indicated also by previous research (Hakimzadeh et al., 2016). In turn, in the relatedness pathway peer support is associated with students’ sense of relatedness (Kiefer et al., 2015; Ryan & Deci, 2000) and further with life satisfaction (Lee & Lee, 2023; Lyons & Jiang, 2022). This might indicate that through peer support students can fulfil their need for a sense of relatedness, which further cultivates their life satisfaction beyond school. The pathways may be understood through the "spillover effect" (Eldor et al., 2020). Through this lens the peer support for studying serves as an initiator for positive study related emotional experiences or/and the fundamental need for a sense of relatedness within the peer group. Since various aspects of students’ lives are interconnected, these positive experiences may then extend or "spill over" into other areas of their lives (Gempp & González-Carrasco, 2021; Huang, 2020). At its best, the pathways are complementary cultivating both the positive school experience as well as students’ satisfaction with life beyond the school. Our findings provide new insights into the mechanisms through which peer support for studying can contribute to student overall life satisfaction among adolescences.

In contrast to our hypothesis (e.g., Gempp & Gonzáles-Carrasco, 2021), the results showed that students’ sense of relatedness did not mediate the association between peer support and study engagement while the positive effect from sense of relatedness to students’ life satisfaction was detected beyond the school. A potential explanation for this is that function of peer relationships changes during adolescence. While school typically provides a primary arena for building and sustaining peer relationships for young children, in adolescence, the significance of relatedness with peers expands to cover all the domains of life (see Brown & Larson, 2009; Laursen & Veenstra, 2021).

Based on the results, several directions for future research can be suggested. Firstly, conducting studies with larger sample sizes would ensure the generalizability of the results. With the larger sample sizes also the individual differences in the function of peer support could be explored. It would be important to explore, whether there are differences in the occurring of the pathways between high school and vocational school students, and between boys and girls. Furthermore, future research should explore individual differences in how students perceive and benefit from peer support. This could involve identifying distinct student groups based on various functions of social support among upper secondary students, for example, using a person-centered study approach. Moreover, investigating contextual factors that may influence peer support and wellbeing experiences, such as teacher-student relationships, or peer group dynamics should be considered. Understanding how these factors shape students’ experiences could inform the development of targeted interventions tailored to enhancing students’ wellbeing. Last, studies examining the long-term effect of peer support experiences during the upper secondary education could provide insight into their influence on students’ further educational trajectories and employment outcomes.

Conclusions and practical implications

The results suggest that students’ socially embedded experiences at school significantly influence their life satisfaction. Specifically, the peer support for studying among students plays a pivotal role in fostering both study engagement and a sense of relatedness leading to enhanced life satisfaction. These findings carry practical implications for enhancing both wellbeing and studying by upper secondary education students. To improve students’ life satisfaction, study-related peer support needs to be cultivated so that it triggers students’ sense of relatedness and study engagement. This requires establishing pedagogical practices that incorporate opportunities for study-related discussions and foster collaboration between students. At its best, sharing study-related issues with peers nurtures students’ perception of mutual value and significance to one another and promotes a mutual experience of study enthusiasm and the significance of school work. However, it cannot be taken for granted that students’ peer interaction supports their well-being within the studying and more broadly in life (see also Kiuru et al., 2008; Ulmanen et al., 2022a). To establish a constructive studying environment in which a functional peer relationship can be optimally cultivated, teachers could benefit from guidelines on cooperative teaching methods, instructing how to facilitate peer interaction in a way that support both learning and wellbeing (e.g. Johnson & Johnson, 1999). Teachers may also need support in discerning the nuances of peer interaction. For example, it is crucial to support teachers in establishing reciprocal relationships with the students, because it allows them to evaluate the suitability of their pedagogical solutions in their day-to-day interactions. Furthermore, equipping teachers with tools to evaluate students’ experiences of peer interaction and study engagement would allow them to grasp the relevance of their pedagogical approaches in terms of students’ wellbeing and develop them accordingly. It is also important that students learn to shape their mutual peer support practices in a way that their wellbeing in studying and in life is enabled and promoted.