Introduction

Despite substantial empirical work on in-service teachers’ emotions while teaching, the emotional experiences of student teachers during their practicum have only recently received scholarly attention (Hascher & Waber, 2020). Research on the emotions of in-service teachers has repeatedly shown that teacher emotions are of the utmost importance for the quality of teaching and teacher well-being (for overviews, see Frenzel, 2014; Frenzel et al., 2021; Sutton & Wheatley, 2003). Emotions hold additional significance because they are “contagious,” that is, they transfer between students and teachers (Frenzel et al., 2018; Tam et al., 2020). Student teachers also experience a diverse array of emotions during their school practicum. While studies have mostly observed a preponderance of positive emotions in these settings, the frequency with which negative emotions also arise reflects the emotional challenges associated with the practicum (Anttila et al., 2017; Chen, 2019a; Darge et al., 2018; De Zordo et al., 2019; Hascher & Hagenauer, 2016; Yang, 2019).

The purpose of this paper is to clarify the conditions that influence student teachers' emotional experiences during their practicum. Due to the multiple social relationships in the school practicum and the fact that teaching is itself a social endeavour (Butler, 2012), we aim to examine whether the quality of these social relationships has a significant impact on the emotional experience of student teachers during a teaching practicum. The results of our study not only contribute to better understanding this underexplored research field regarding student teachers’ emotional experiences, they also carry practical implications for designing more constructive practica, which are crucial experiences in the development of prospective teachers.

Student teachers’ emotions in the practicum

Emotions are understood as multifaceted phenomena consisting of several aspects, such as affective, motivational, cognitive, expressive, and physiological components. From an appraisal-theoretical approach, emotions arise due to the cognitive evaluation of a situation (Ellsworth & Scherer, 2003; Scherer et al., 2001). Thus, the emotions of student teachers are likely to vary depending on how they appraise their respective situations. For example, a classroom disruption in the school practicum may be experienced as annoying by one student teacher while causing anxiety in another. Differences in how the situation is evaluated yield various emotional reactions. While the situation in the first case still seems controllable, the second student teacher might be afraid of losing control of the situation (see model on teacher emotions; Frenzel, 2014).

In the practicum, emotions can be regarded as crucial for several reasons. First, the practicum serves as an orientation for the student teachers’ career choice (Bach, 2020; Cohen et al., 2013). A positive emotional experience acts as a sign of suitability for the teaching profession. Second, emotions guide behaviour and are intertwined with the development of a teacher’s professional identity (Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2012; Yuan & Lee, 2016). Regarding professional behaviour, studies focusing specifically on the school practicum have revealed that student teachers’ emotions are associated with high-quality behaviour in the practicum, such as an openness to reflecting practical experiences based on theories, which is a core competence of reflective teachers (Hascher & Hagenauer, 2016). Third, the emotions experienced during a school practicum can also significantly impact the students’ overall well-being in the teacher education program beyond the setting of the specific teaching practicum (Fives et al., 2007; Kaldi, 2009). Student teachers frequently report that joyful experiences during their practica give them positive energy since, through such experiences, they feel confirmed in their career choice and respected and valued as future teachers (Poulou, 2007). Conversely, feeling disrespected and unaccepted by students in the classroom setting can result in student teachers feeling overly anxious (Ozmantar, 2019; Vandercleyen et al., 2014). These anxieties can hamper processes of professionalisation by inducing avoidance behaviours, such as limiting one’s willingness to get involved in new things and try out new teaching methods. Similar associations have been made with anger (Chen, 2019b for in-service teachers). A study conducted by Timoštšuk et al. (2016) found significant correlations between student teachers’ emotions and the way they teach. Anger, anxiety, and shame correlated negatively with student-centred teaching methods, while pride and enjoyment correlated positively. In another study, Yang (2019) observed that positive emotions among student teachers were linked to increased creativity and innovation in their teaching methods.

The results of the studies pointing to the beneficial functions of positive emotional patterns do not necessarily preclude the possibility that negative emotions also fulfil important functions in professionalisation processes. However, it can be assumed that intense or prolonged negative emotions could lead to adverse outcomes if they supersede more positive emotional experiences.

Student teachers often feel more anxiety or emotional exhaustion at the beginning of their practicum (Fives et al., 2007; Yang, 2019); however, these anxieties typically diminish once student teachers experience a feeling of success or when they feel efficacious (e.g., high student engagement, building a positive student-teacher relationship, or experiencing successful mastery in classroom management) (Porsch, 2018; Porsch & Gollub, 2018; Poulou, 2007; Yang, 2019). This suggests that emotions and perceptions of self-efficacy are also closely linked (Bach & Hagenauer, 2022; Chen, 2019a).

However, apart from anxiety, little is known about the developments of other emotions during the practicum. It can be expected that enjoyment is higher on average than anger, as students attribute a high value to the internship (Clarke et al., 2014). Whether enjoyment continues to increase during the practicum or how anger develops over the course of the practicum has not been examined so far. In theory, it can be assumed that this development also depends on the design of the practicum conditions (e.g., König et al., 2018). Darge et al. (2018) showed that, for a sample of German student teachers, more student teachers reported an increase in enjoyment during the practicum than those who experienced a decrease in enjoyment. However, the overall mean value in relation to enjoyment did not change significantly from pre- to post-measurement in this study.

Furthermore, previous studies have generally shown that the emotions of student teachers (and in-service teachers) correlate. For example, (student) teachers who experience high anxiety tend to experience less enjoyment and vice versa. Similarly, high anger is also associated with lower enjoyment (Chen, 2019a; Hagenauer et al., 2015). Due to this high interrelatedness of distinct emotions indicating emotional patterns (Anttila et al., 2017), it can be assumed that changes in emotions over time (e.g. the change of emotions over the period of a school practicum) are also highly associated.

To conclude, emotions fulfil many important functions in the school practicum, and it is essential to foster more positive emotional patterns in student teachers during their practicum. By saying “positive emotional pattern”, we also acknowledge the fact that negative emotions can serve significant functions in professionalisation processes as well; however, these negative emotions must not be too intense, prolonged, or outweigh the positive emotions. Therefore, the goal should be for student teachers to experience an overall positive emotion pattern during their practica; at the same time, they must also be taught and encouraged to deal with negative emotional experiences in a productive way (such as training their social-emotional competencies; e.g., Schelhorn et al., 2023).

On the role of social relations in the school practicum

There are many ways to foster positive emotions in student teachers. In our contribution, we focus on the quality of social relationships, which are strongly intertwined with one’s emotional experiences (Parkinson, 1996). Self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2017) suggests that human beings experience positive development and flourish if the three basic psychological needs are fulfilled: the need for autonomy, competence, and social relatedness. Similarly, according to the premises of the belongingness hypothesis (Baumeister & Leary, 1995), human beings have an innate need for secure and positive relationships with others. Following this argument, we posit that the perceived quality of social relationships in the practicum is fundamental to student teachers’ emotional experiences.

Existing empirical evidence indicates a strong link between the quality of social relationships and the emotional well-being of teachers (Aldrup et al., 2018; Hagenauer et al., 2015) and students (Goetz et al., 2021). However, similar evidence on student teachers in the practicum is scarce. We know that the interactions between students and the mentor teacher evoke a diverse array of emotions, both positive and negative, in student teachers (Yang, 2019). For example, Yuan and Lee (2016) found that student teachers have more negative emotional experiences if the mentor teachers do not allow them to develop their own teaching style and, instead, force them to teach according to the mentor teachers’ own norms and values. In turn, if student teachers perceive their mentor teachers as highly supportive (both emotionally and instrumentally), their enjoyment in the practicum increases (Darge et al., 2018; see also Hagenauer et al., 2023). Furthermore, Bach’s (2022) findings suggest that student teachers experience more positive and fewer negative emotions when they receive positive feedback in the form of verbal persuasion from their mentor teacher during their teaching practicum.

In a similar vein, Waber et al. (2021) demonstrated that student teachers have varying emotional experiences in a team practicum. This study goes beyond those previously described in that it also highlights the impact of fellow student teachers on one’s emotional experience in a team practicum. Similar to the results regarding mentor teachers, Waber et al. (2021) found that the support of one’s fellow student teacher was vital for fostering a positive emotional experience, while factors such as failed communication or differences in the teaching style yielded negative emotions in student teachers in team practica. Additionally, as fellow student teachers also provide feedback to their peers, positive feedback from fellow students, in the form of verbal persuasion, has been shown to be correlated with more positive emotions and fewer negative emotions among student teachers during their teaching practicum (Bach, 2022).

Finally, it is imperative not to disregard the role of students. As we have already described in the section on emotions, students in the classroom are highly influential on student teachers’ emotional experiences (Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2012). The perception of being accepted and valued by them as basic dimension of a high-quality relationship goes together with strong positive emotions and provides further support for the student teachers’ career choice (e.g., Ozmantar, 2019; Vandercleyen et al., 2014). Shoffner (2009) also showed that whether student teachers are successful in building satisfying relationships with students is a significant source of concern. Again, positive feedback by students in class increases student teachers’ positive emotional experiences while assuaging their apprehensions (Bach, 2022).

Together, these studies suggest that social interactions in the practicum are powerful factors contributing to student teachers’ emotional experiences. However, it should be noted that interactions and relationships should not be equated, as relationships are the product of interactions (Wettstein & Raufelder, 2021). This is also where the present study comes in: We are not concerned with the question of how concrete behaviours (of the mentor teacher, students or fellow student teachers) are experienced, either positively or negatively, by the student teachers; instead, we ask to what extent is the quality of social relationships (resulting from interactions) related to the development of student teachers’ emotions during a practicum.

The present study

Given the lack of research on the topic, our study investigates the association between the quality of social relationships and the development of student teachers’ emotions in the teaching practicum. In so doing, our study extends previous research in two regards. First, it investigates the effects of these relationship qualities on changes in student teachers’ emotions. Second, it examines these effects in one joint model that considers three relationship categories simultaneously: the relationship with students in class, the relationship with the mentor teacher, and the relationship with fellow student teachers. With regard to discrete emotions, we have included the emotions joy, anger and anxiety as Frenzel et al. (2016) argue that enjoyment and anger are emotions frequently felt by all human beings, including teachers. In addition, anxiety has a crucial function for teacher well-being and thus, can be regarded as an important emotion; in particular for student teachers with little teaching experience (e.g. Porsch & Gollub, 2018). Previous studies revealed that these emotions are prevalent during a teaching practicum (Hascher & Hagenauer, 2016; Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2012).

Based on previous research, we propose the following hypotheses:

  • (H1) Self-reported anxiety decreases from the beginning of the practicum to the end. Self-reported enjoyment and anger also change during the practicum. Due to the lack of previous empirical studies, the direction of these changes in enjoyment and anger is not specified.

  • (H2) The perceived quality of the social relationships with students, mentor teachers, and fellow student teachers predicts how student teachers’ emotions develop over time. If the perceived quality is high, student teachers’ enjoyment is expected to develop positively, while low quality relationships should lead to an increase in anger and anxiety.

  • (H3) Changes in student teachers’ perceptions of enjoyment will be (negatively) associated with changes in their perceptions of anger and anxiety, while changes in anxiety and anger will be positively associated with each other.

Methods

Context and Participants

The survey for this study was conducted online. It was administered mainly in regular classrooms on-site or in online courses by trained staff members. Overall, 203 Austrian student teachers took part in the survey at both measurement points.

Of these 203 student teachers, 67% (n = 136) were female, 32% (n = 65) were male, and two student teachers identified themselves as diverse. The participants were student teachers studying secondary education. In Austria, two subjects or one subject and a specialisation (e.g., inclusive pedagogics) must be studied to obtain a teaching degree for secondary schools (grades 5-12/13). Around 28% of the sample (n = 57) studied English (first foreign language), another 26% (n = 52) studied German, and 18.3% of the student teachers (n = 37) studied mathematics (the so-called “core subjects”). Many student teachers also studied the so-called “subsidiary subjects” in Austria, including history (n = 45; 22%), geography (n = 40, 20%), physical education (n = 29, 14%) and biology (n = 25; 12%). Other subjects were, for instance, chemistry (n = 10), religion (n = 12), psychology and philosophy (n = 14), and others (French, Spanish, Latin, music education, etc.).

On average, the student teachers were 22.41 years old (SD = 3.10; Range = 19-37 years). Most were in their 5th semester (87.1%, n = 175, range: 2-14 semesters; M = 5.33; SD = 1.20) of their bachelor’s degree, which is the semester in which two practica are recommended in the curriculum, one for each subject studied. These practica last one semester each, and the student teachers complete them alongside their courses at the university. According to the curriculum, these are the first practica in which the student teachers hold lessons in their studied subjects. Students usually complete each practicum in teams of two to four student teachers who are supervised by a mentor teacher who is an experienced teacher at the school.

In the present sample, 163 student teachers had their practicum in both subjects (A + B), and 40 student teachers had their practicum in only one subject (A).

Prior to the practica (t1), the student teachers had little teaching experience in school (on average they have taught 2.76 lessons; SD = 6.30).

Compared to the few self-administered lessons, the student teachers reported at the beginning of the study significantly more observed lessons (M = 27.70 lessons; SD = 6.30), which was expected, as in the 2nd semester, there is a so-called “orientation practicum” in which student teachers are primarily given the task of observing lessons of experienced mentor teachers.

After the practicum (t2), the student teachers reported that they had taught, on average, 6.62 lessons in their practicum (SD = 4.57). Furthermore, they observed another 28 lessons of the mentor teacher or their fellow student teachers on average (SD = 12.33). Thus, the student teachers significantly broadened their experience of teaching in schools through the practicum.

Measurements

All measurements used were based on the student teachers’ experiences during their last practicum. At t1, they were asked to rate their previous emotional experiences of teaching in a school practicum; at t2, they were asked to rate their emotional experiences as well as the quality of the perceived social relationships in the school practicum they had just completed. This focus on the practicum experiences was communicated very clearly by a test administrator; it was also repeated in the introduction to the questionnaire and, finally, the focus was also repeated in the item formulations and introductions to the individual question areas.

Teacher emotions

The teacher emotions scales (Frenzel et al., 2016) were used to measure student teachers’ enjoyment, anger, and anxiety during instruction, with the items being slightly adapted to the practicum context. These emotions were assessed before (t1) and after (t2) the practicum. Joy was measured with four items (e.g., “During my previous practical experiences of teaching in school, I generally enjoyed teaching”; α = .72t1; .82t2). Anger was also assessed with four items (e.g., “During my previous practical experiences of teaching in school, I often had reasons to be angry while teaching”; α = .73t1; .79t2). Finally, anxiety was measured with four items as well (e.g., “During my previous practical experiences of teaching in school, I generally felt tense and nervous while teaching”; α = .74t1; .76t2). The items were rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree.

Quality of the student-teacher relationship

The quality of the student-teacher relationship as perceived by the student teacher was measured with five items (e.g., “The students respected me”) based on the scale developed by Aldrup et al. (2018) (4-point Likert scale; 1 = not true at all; 4 = very true). The original scale consisted of six items, but we only included five items in the scale since the item “The students have also turned to me with private problems” was not appropriate for the practicum context, as student teachers did not have much contact with students outside of the classroom. If the student teachers attended practica A and B, they assessed the quality of the relationship with the students for each practicum site separately (α = .75A; .86B).

Quality of the relationship with the mentor teacher

The quality of the relationship with the mentor teacher was assessed using seven items from a scale developed by Bach (2013, adapted from Schüpbach, 2007). A sample item is: “I could rely on my mentor teacher” (4-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = not true at all; 4 = very true; (α = .91A; .94B).

Quality of the relationship with fellow student teachers

Finally, the same items that described the quality of one’s relationship with their mentor teachers (Bach, 2013) were also used to describe the quality of their relationship with fellow student teachers. For instance, a sample item was: “I could rely on my fellow student teachers” (4-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = not true at all; 4 = very true; α = .91A; .93B).

Covariates

Student teachers’ gender, teaching experience, and observation experience were considered as covariates. These variables were chosen for several reasons. Gender, for instance, has been shown to be an important factor when describing emotions in people (e.g., Timmers et al., 2003; Wester et al., 2002). Additionally, as addressed before, prior teaching experience also factors into student teachers’ emotional experiences, such as decreasing one’s anxiety (Porsch & Gollub, 2018). The same can be assumed for the observation experience. Studies have demonstrated that observation experiences, which facilitate vicarious learning in line with self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1997), are correlated with one’s emotions depending upon whether they have a positive or negative experience (Bach, 2022; Pfitzner-Eden, 2016, van Rooij et al., 2019).

Data analysis

The data were analysed through latent change modelling (LCM) (McArdle 2009; Steyer et al. 1997) using the statistical software Mplus 8.8 (Muthén & Muthén, 1998-2018). LCM enables the assessment of within-individual changes by employing two measurement time points of a latent variable (Steyer et al., 1997). It conceptualizes the scores of a single student (s) on enjoyment, anger, and anxiety at time (t) as a function consisting of an autoregressive component and a residual term: \({Enjoyment}_{s,t2}={Enjoyment}_{s,t1}+\Delta {Enjoyment}_{s,1}\), \({Anxiety}_{s,t2}={Anxiety}_{s,t1}+\Delta {Anxiety}_{s,1}\), and \({Anger}_{s,t2}={Anger}_{s,t1}+\Delta {Anger}_{s,1}\). Accordingly, the regression weight of each variable at t2 and t1 was fixed to 1. Therefore, the change score was equal to \(\Delta {Enjoyment}_{s,1}={{Enjoyment}_{s,t2}-Enjoyment}_{s,t1}\), \(\Delta {Anxiety}_{s,1}={{Anxiety}_{s,t2}-Anxiety}_{s,t1}\), and \(\Delta {Anger}_{s,1}={{Anger}_{s,t2}-Anger}_{s,t1}\). By implementing this method, a latent change factor could be defined as \({\Delta Enjoyment}_{1}\), \({\Delta Anxiety}_{1}\), and \({\Delta Anger}_{1}\), where the changes could be captured between t1 and t2 by fixing the factor loadings at t2 to t1. Lastly, a regression parameter (\(\beta\)) was introduced to the change score to investigate whether the extent of change was influenced by the scores at t1 (Kievit et al., 2018; McArdle, 2009). Furthermore, LCM enables the identification of interindividual differences in intraindividual change because the true intraindividual change is modelled between two measurement points as the value of a latent variable (Steyer et al., 1997).

We additionally followed a stepwise procedure: First, measurement invariance (configural, metric, and scalar) over time was tested for each emotion variable because strong factorial measurement invariance is a prerequisite for conducting latent change analyses (Geiser, 2013; McArdle, 2009; Millsap, 2011). Subsequently, we examined whether the sequentially imposed measurement invariance constraints led to a significant decrease in the model fit by computing differences in the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), and the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) (Chen 2007) with the latter one controlling for parsimony (Marsh, 2007). Accordingly, models with \(\Delta CFI\le 0.010\), \(\Delta TLI\le 0.010\), and \(\Delta RMSEA\le 0.015\) were favoured (Chen, 2007). Second, to test H1, an unconditional LCM was conducted for each emotion separately. These unconditional LCMs allowed us to assess whether student teachers’ emotions significantly decreased or increased from t1 to t2. Third, to test H2, the control variables (gender, previous teaching experience, and previous observation experience) were included in each of the unconditional LCMs, as well as the predictors (the perceived quality of social relationships with students, teacher mentors, and fellow student teachers) of the change in enjoyment, anxiety, and anger, where the predictors were stepwise included. Finally, all three emotion variables were integrated into one LCM with control and predictor variables to test H3.

Missing data were handled using full-information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimation in Mplus. This approach was chosen because the missing data were found to be completely random based on Little's MCAR test (enjoyment: χ2 (14) = 8.43, p >.05; anxiety: χ2 (28) = 32.45, p >.05; anger: χ2 (21) = 21.39, p >.05). Good model fit was indicated with TLI/CFI values close to 0.95, RMSEA values close to 0.06, and SRMR values less than or equal to 0.08, as suggested by Hu and Bentler (1999).

Results

Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations

The descriptive statistics and intercorrelations for all variables are presented in Table 1. As expected, enjoyment exhibited a moderate negative correlation with anger (r = -.35t1 / -.50t2, p < .001) and anxiety (r = -.33t1 / -.47t2, p < .001). Anger and anxiety correlated positively, with the intercorrelation being stronger at t2 (r = .22t1; p < .01; r = .46t2, p < .001). Comparatively, the empirical mean level was highest for enjoyment, followed by anxiety and anger.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics and (manifest) intercorrelations
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Regarding the quality of different social relationships, the strongest intercorrelations were found for student teachers’ emotions and the quality of the relationships with students in class. Overall, enjoyment correlated most strongly with the perceived relationship with students in the class (r = .38t2; p < .001). Additionally, there were significant intercorrelations between student teachers’ anxiety (r = -.34t2; p < .001) and anger (r = -.26t2; p < .001) with the quality of their relationships with students. Anxiety also correlated negatively with the quality of the relationship with the mentor teacher (r = -.25t2; p < .001) and fellow student teachers (r = -.16t2; p < .001).

Preliminary analyses concerning the covariates

We then conducted some initial analyses with the covariates by testing whether there were differences between male and female student teachers regarding their emotional experiences. As shown in Fig. 1, while female student teachers reported higher anxiety at t1 (d = 0.37), they also exhibited higher enjoyment at t2 (d = 0.35). The other independent t-tests did not reveal significant mean differences, although the effect sizes also point to more prevalent experiences with anger for male student teachers at t2 (d = -0.28) and still slightly higher anxiety in female student teachers at t2 (d = 0.20).

Fig. 1
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Gender differences in emotions. *** p < .001, ** p < .01, * p < .05

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Finally, we examined the emotional patterns of student teachers depending on their prior teaching experience and experience observing lessons of in-service teachers. Intercorrelations (Pearson, 2-tailed) showed that student teachers with higher teaching and observing experiences at t1 reported more joy (teaching experience: r = .15, p = .04, observing lessons: r = .20, p < .01), and less anxiety (teaching experience: r = -.23, p < .001; observing lessons: r = -.17, p = .02), while the correlation with anger was nonsignificant (p > .05). These prior experiences, however, did not correlate with student teachers’ emotions reported at t2 (p > .05).

Explaining the change in student teachers’ emotions – Latent Change Modelling (LCM)

The results of the invariant testing are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Results for Tests of Longitudinal Measurement Invariance
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Our findings of the unconditional LCMs to investigate H1 revealed that student teachers’ perception of enjoyment significantly increased from t1 to t2 (ΔM = 0.43, p < .001; σΔ2 = 0.18, p < .001), while there was no significant difference in student teachers’ perception of anger (ΔM = 0.30, p > .05; σΔ2 = 0.14, p < .001). Additionally, there was a significant decrease in student teachers’ perception of anxiety (ΔM = -0.80, p < .001; σΔ2 = 0.22, p < .001). All three latent-change scores had substantial variances, indicating significant interindividual differences in student teachers’ intraindividual changes.

The model fit of the LCMs with covariates and stepwise-included predictor variables (i.e., quality of relationships with (1) students, (2) mentor teachers, and (3) fellow student teachers) are shown in Table 3.

Table 3 Model fit for the stepwise LCMs for student teachers’ development of enjoyment, anxiety and anger
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The final LCM to test for H2 showed that only student teachers’ perception of the relationship with students was significantly associated with the change in their enjoyment, anxiety, or anger in class. Specifically, the more positive the student teachers perceived their relationship with students, the greater the increase in enjoyment during the practicum and the greater the decrease in anxiety and anger (see Table 4 and Figs. 2, 3, and 4). Conversely, neither the relationship with the mentor teacher nor the relationship with other fellow student teachers accounted for substantial increases in explained variance once the quality of the relationship with students was considered in the model. For anxiety, there was a marginally significant effect for the relationship with mentor teachers, as more positive relationships with these individuals were associated with a greater decrease in anxiety.

Table 4 Results from the Latent Change Models Including all three Relationship Variables as Predictors of the Change of the Emotion Constructs
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Fig. 2
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LCM for student teachers’ enjoyment during practicum with predictor variables and covariates

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Fig. 3
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LCM for student teachers’ anxiety during practicum with predictor variables and covariates

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Fig. 4
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LCM for student teachers’ anger during practicum with predictor variables and covariates

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The negative correlation between the initial state of each emotion at t1 and the change (Δ) can be explained by the following statistical effect: According to the covariance calculation rules (Rice, 2007), the association between t1 and Δ must be negative, because the association between t1 and Δ is weaker at t2 than it is at t1. This observation can also be interpreted in the context of possible changes: A higher baseline emotional level at the beginning of the practicum is associated with a lower level of change during the practicum and vice versa. Therefore, an expected finding is a negative correlation between the initial measurement point and the extent of change.

In order to test H3, we conducted a final LCM with all three emotion variables in one model, including all covariates and all three relationships, which indicated a satisfactory model fit (χ (389) = 568.66; p <.001; CFI = 0.91; RMSEA = 0.05 (0.04–0.06); SRMR = 0.08). The results of this model supported H3; for instance, changes in student teachers’ perception of enjoyment were associated with changes in their perceptions of anger and anxiety: Δenjoyment and Δanger (estimate = -.68, SE = .06, p <.001), Δenjoyment and Δanxiety (estimate = -.66, SE = .08, p <.001), and Δanxiety and Δanger (estimate = .71, SE = .07, p <.001) Fig. 5.

Fig. 5
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Final LCM with all emotion variables, predictor variables and covariates

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Discussion

The purpose of this study was to explore changes in student teachers’ emotions (enjoyment, anger, and anxiety) during their teaching practicum and understand how these changes relate to the quality of perceived social relationships with students (in class), the mentor teacher, and fellow student teachers. Previous studies (for example, Ozmentar, 2019; Timoštšuk & Ugaste, 2012) have already revealed, primarily through qualitative examinations, that the quality of social relationships influences student teachers’ emotional experiences. The present study attempted to build upon these findings by testing the joint impact of these social relationships on changes in student teachers’ emotions during one practicum.

As expected, we found a decrease in students’ anxiety from t1 to t2, in line with Hypothesis 1. This finding parallels previous research, which has indicated that anxiety typically decreases as one’s teaching experience increases (Porsch & Gollub, 2018). Relatedly, Rupp and Becker (2021) also detected an increase in (Swiss) student teachers’ perceived self-efficacy during a three-week practicum. Since perceptions of self-efficacy appear to be related to control beliefs, an increase in self-efficacy is also typically connected to a decrease in anxiety (see also Lazarus, 1999, and his definition of the secondary appraisal, which relates to a person’s perception of the coping potential during a stressful event). Indeed, studies have demonstrated that an increase in self-efficacy during a practicum is negatively correlated with adverse emotions (Bach, 2022; Pfitzner-Eden, 2016). Additionally, we found a general increase in enjoyment over the course of the practicum. This suggests that, overall, the student teachers had positive experiences with their practicum that further enhanced their already high sense of enjoyment at the beginning of the internship. The specific practicum we examined was the one in which they were allowed to teach independently for the first time in the subjects studied. Thus, it is possible that these experiences further bolstered the student teachers’ confidence in their career choices and suitability as teachers. Anger did not change significantly between t1 and t2, which may be explained by a higher fluctuation of anger across (concrete) situations. For example, Frenzel and Goetz (2007) found, based on diary entries, that teacher anger varied more between different classrooms compared to joy. Similar studies focusing on the subjective experiences of student teachers could provide a more in-depth examination of this assumption regarding the greater within-person variability of anger.

Regarding Hypothesis 2, the results clearly indicate that the perceived social relationships with students in class best explained student teachers’ emotions across all models. In the joint model, only the relationships with the mentor teacher contributed to the explanation of anxiety (p = .055), while social relationships with fellow student teachers did not vary significantly above and beyond the other predictors. However, one must keep in mind that there were some intercorrelations between the quality indicators of social relationships. In exploratory stepwise models (entering each predictor separately), we also found a positive association between the quality of the perceived relationship with the mentor teacher and student teachers’ enjoyment and anxiety, although this relationship (mostly) disappeared once the quality of the relationships with students in the class was considered in the model as well. From these results, we can conclude that, from the student teachers’ perspective, relationships with the students in the class are the most important factor contributing to their emotional experiences, while there was no substantial incremental validity concerning the other predictors in a joint model. This finding mirrors what student teachers have mentioned in previous qualitative studies: Feeling respected and accepted by students is central to the emotional experience of student teachers while feeling disrespected and unaccepted causes anxiety and worry among student teachers (Ozmantar, 2019; Poulou, 2007).

The slight positive correlation between the relationship quality with the mentor teacher and student teachers’ change in anxiety is also in agreement with the existing literature. Anxiety levels are largely contingent upon how supportive mentor teachers are (e.g. in terms of feedback, dealing with mistakes, autonomy support) (Hagenauer et al., 2023). Correlational findings by Bach (2022) show that student teachers experience less negative and more positive emotions during their practica when they receive positive feedback from their mentor and are given the opportunity to observe their mentor teaching successfully. These experiences, in turn, have been associated with an increase in self-efficacy, which underlines the central role of mentors in shaping the quality of the practicum.

In our research, the fellow student teachers in the practicum were less integral to the emotional experiences of the student teachers. However, this result must be interpreted in light of the present context: Student teachers do not have to co-teach with fellow student teachers in this specific practicum. Ultimately, student teachers observe each other’s lessons and provide feedback together with the mentor teacher. However, there are no other cooperative assignments. It can be assumed, then, that practica in which planning and teaching are also done cooperatively are much more likely to elicit emotional responses based on fellow student teachers (Waber et al., 2021).

Finally, as expected, changes in the students’ emotional experiences were characterised by their interactions. If student teachers experienced an increase in enjoyment, they simultaneously experienced a decrease in anger and anxiety (and vice versa) (Hypothesis 3). Therefore, one can definitively speak of an emotional pattern that student teachers experience in the practicum. Emotions are strongly interconnected, and negative emotions typically correlate positively with negative emotions and negatively with positive emotions (see also Chen et al., 2019a; Hagenauer et al., 2015). So far, however, this interconnectedness has primarily been considered cross-sectionally. This study now indicates that even changes in distinct emotions do not happen at the single-emotion level; rather, they are strongly intertwined. Based on the present findings, if emotional changes occur in the practicum, these changes usually take place regarding several emotions. Person-centred analyses could build upon this by modelling and mapping these emotional profiles and their changes statistically (see Anttila et al., 2017, for a qualitative approach to mapping emotional patterns).

Strengths, limitations, and future directions

Due to its longitudinal design, this study could test the joint influence of different social relationships during a teaching practicum on the varying emotional experiences of student teachers. However, this design also presented some noteworthy challenges. Since the majority of students did the practicum in two subjects during this period, the assessment of relationship qualities was related to two contexts. To overcome this challenge, we asked the student teachers to assess practica A and B separately and only combined these two assessments in the analyses by calculating the mean of the perceived relationship between A and B. We opted against two separate analyses differentiating between practica A and B since the change in emotions is highly contingent upon the entire internship experience.

Regarding social relationships, we did not include university teachers in our study. They are not on-site at the school during the practicum (they also do not make any observation visits there) but only teach an accompanying seminar at the university. It can be assumed that they play a subordinate role in the emotional experience of student teachers during the practicum in this Austrian setting. Future studies could investigate the role of university teachers, particularly those engaged in on-site school practice while also serving as supervisors (see, for example, Caires & Almeida, 2007). Additionally, it should be noted that we were unable to identify individuals who participated jointly in an internship, which could pose an interesting avenue for future research endeavours.

Furthermore, it must be noted that all assessments were self-reports. Errors could have arisen here, especially if student teachers assessed the quality of their social relationships more positively than they actually were. Future studies could possibly also take into account other people’s assessments - specifically the students’ views on the teacher-student relationship in class.

In addition, in terms of student teachers’ emotions, we only assessed enjoyment, anger, and anxiety. Recognising that student teachers experience a plethora of different emotions during the teaching practicum (Anttila et al., 2016; Waber et al., 2021), future studies could include further emotions, such as pride, relief, shame, and disappointment, among others. In addition to considering several other emotional facets, it would be essential to consider emotions more explicitly against the background of situational influences to obtain a better understanding of the emotional experiences of student teachers (see, for example, Rupp & Becker, 2021 for student teacher’ self-efficacy across situations/lessons during a practicum).

Finally, we would like to emphasise again that the results allow a first generalisation for the Austrian context and the design of practicum phases. In Austria, shorter internships are frequently implemented in Bachelor’s degree programs in initial teacher education. However, internships are structured very differently between countries and students often find themselves in internships that are much more intensive (e.g. in terms of duration but also in terms of expected cooperation). Future studies should therefore examine whether the strength of the correlations between the different relationship qualities and student teachers’ emotions change when practicum conditions are implemented differently depending on the context. It can be assumed, for example, that the role of fellow students is stronger in a team practicum with team teaching (including planning and evaluating) as well as the role of the mentor teacher in a long-term practicum. Apart from this, it needs to be emphasised again that the role of quality of the relationship with students in class has often been overlooked in previous (quantitative) studies. It could be expected that the role of students could possibly become even more prominent in a more intensive practicum.

Conclusion and Implications

This study clearly demonstrates that social relationships in the practicum are highly relevant to the emotional experience of student teachers. Specifically, it is the students in the class and the relationship with them that the student teachers perceive as emotionally triggering. While a high-quality teacher-student relationship has already been highlighted in previous research as playing a substantial role in the emotional experiences of in-service teachers (Aldrup et al., 2018; Hagenauer et al., 2015), the quality of the student-student teacher relationship and its impact on student teachers’ emotions has been studied rather marginally thus far (see also Pattison-Meek, 2024). Hence, it can be deduced that, on the one hand, greater consideration should be given to the role of students in the class and their function in the practicum for the professionalisation of teachers; on the other hand, the topic of relationship building should be emphasised much more concretely in initial teacher training.

Regarding the students in class, it would be important to anchor the topic of forming positive teacher-student relationships much more firmly in the curricula in initial teacher education. While this topic is usually strongly represented in curricula for primary school teachers in Austria, it is often treated rather marginally for student teachers studying secondary education, especially in the context of student teachers’ emotions. How can student teachers succeed in building a respectful, warm and mutually appreciative relationship with students? Seminars and workshops on social-emotional competencies of teachers seem promising here (Jennings & Greenberg, 2009).

Mentor teachers also need to enhance the awareness on the importance of building high-quality social relationships with student teachers, as – most importantly - these positive and trusting relationships can help to reduce anxiety in student teachers. Attributes such as appreciation, reliability, trust, support, feeling cared for, being treated as an equal and authentic enjoyment of working with student teachers are essential conditions for a positive relationship quality between mentor teachers and student teachers (see for example the previous qualitative studies done on this topic: Hagenauer et al., 2023; Waber et al., 2020).

Awareness on the importance of social relationships in the school is also relevant to the work of mentor teachers. They can directly support the student teachers on site in building positive relationships with the students during the practicum.

Even if the quality of the social relationship with the fellow student teachers in our study did not play a major role in the explanation of the development of student teachers’ emotions, it needs to be pointed out in conclusion that their role should nevertheless not be underestimated, especially in internships that require intensive cooperation. It can be assumed that the development of cooperation skills is very important for the development of positive collegial relationships among student teachers themselves. This brings us directly back to the first implication: The stronger integration of trainings on social-emotional competencies in initial teacher education curricula, would strengthen student teachers with regard to establishing quality interactions with different interaction partners and thus contribute to the promotion of positive relationship qualities, which ultimately is likely to positively impact the emotional experiences in the practicum (and beyond).