Abstract
Concepts relating to outer space are difficult to grasp because we lack direct experience of this environment. We analysed students’ understanding of gravitation on Earth and beyond by testing the effect of training on it. In a pretest (T1), 28 seventh graders answered a questionnaire about space concepts. They all then underwent the same formal teaching at school, but half of them also went on a trip to a space museum. Students then responded to the questionnaire again (T2). We found that the students in the museum-going group made significant progress between T1 and T2. Most of them correctly predicted at T2 (unlike T1) that dropped stones would fall in planetary contexts. Moreover, the misconception linking air and gravity had disappeared by T2. We conclude that combining formal teaching with a trip to a museum helped the children in the present study to develop a more accurate scientific understanding of concepts that cannot be directly experienced.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
The full questionnaire is available on request.
References
Allen, S. (2004). Designs for learning: studying science museum exhibits that do more than entertain. Science Education, 88(1), 17–33.
Anderson, D., Lucas, K. B., & Ginns, I. S. (2003a). Theoretical perspectives on learning in an informal setting. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 40(2), 177–199.
Anderson, D., Thomas, G. P., & Ellenbogen, K. M. (2003b). Learning science from experiences in informal contexts: the next generation of research. Asia-Pacific Forum on Science Learning and Teaching, 4(1), 1–6.
Bar, V., & Zinn, B. (1998). Similar frameworks of action-at-a-distance: early scientists’ and pupils’ ideas. Science and Education, 7, 471–491.
Bar, V., Zinn, B., Goldmuntz, R., & Sneider, C. (1994). Children’s concepts about weight and free fall. Science Education, 78, 149–169.
Bar, V., Sneider, C., & Martimbeau, N. (1997). What research says: is there gravity in space? Science & Children, 34, 38–43.
Bell, P., Lewenstein, B., Shouse, A. W., & Freder, M. A. (2009). Learning in science in informal environments: people, places, and pursuits. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
Brown, D. E., & Hammer, D. (2008). Conceptual change in physics. In S. Vosniadou (Ed.), International handbook of research on conceptual change (pp. 127–154). New York: Routledge.
Chi, M. T. H., & Roscoe, R. D. (2002). The processes and challenges of conceptual changes. In M. Limon & L. Mason (Eds.), Reconsidering conceptual change. Issues in theory and practice (pp. 3–27). Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Diakidoy, I. N., & Kendeou, P. (2001). Facilitating conceptual change in astronomy: a comparison of the effectiveness of two instructional approaches. Learning and Instruction, 11, 1–20.
Ellenbogen, K. M. (2002). Museums in family life: an ethnographic case study. In G. Leinhardt, K. Crowley, & K. Knutson (Eds.), Learning conversations in museums (pp. 81–101). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Fraknoi, A. (2003). Teaching astronomy with science fiction: a resource guide. Astronomy Education Review, 1(2), 112–119.
Francis, P. (2006). Using role-playing games to teach astronomy: an evaluation. Astronomy Education Review, 4(2), 1–9.
Frappart, S., & Frède, V. (2010). Where does a stone go when we drop it? Development of French schoolchildren’s knowledge of gravity. Advances in Space Research, 45, 1058–1066.
Frappart, S., Raijmakers, M., & Frède, V. (2014). What do children know and understand about universal gravitation? Structural and developmental aspects. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 120, 17–38.
Gennaro, E. A. (1981). The effectiveness of using pre-visit instructional materials on learning for a museum field trip experience. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 18, 275–279.
Greenfield, P. (1997). Culture as process: empirical methods for cultural psychology. In J. Berry, Y. Poortinga, & J. Pandey (Eds.), Handbook of cross-cultural psychology. Volume 1. Theory and method (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 301–346). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Hannust, T., & Kikas, E. (2007). Children’s knowledge of astronomy and its change in the course of learning. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 22, 89–104.
Hannust, T., & Kikas, E. (2010). Young children’s acquisition of knowledge about the Earth: a longitudinal study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 107, 164–180.
Harris, P. L., & Koenig, M. A. (2006). Trust in testimony: how children learn about science and religion. Child Development, 77, 505–524.
Hayes, B. K., Goodhew, A., Heit, E., & Gillan, J. (2003). The role of diverse instruction in conceptual change. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 86, 253–276.
Hofstein, A., & Rosenfeld, S. (1996). Bringing the gap between formal and informal science learning. Studies in Science Education, 28, 87–112.
Howe, C. J., Tolmie, A., & Rodgers, C. (1992). The acquisition of conceptual knowledge in science by primary school children: group interaction and the understanding of motion down an incline. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 10, 113–130.
Inagaki, K., Hatano, G., & Morita, E. (1998). Construction of mathematical knowledge through whole-class discussion. Learning and Instruction, 8(6), 503–526.
Jacobi, I. C., Newberg, H. J., Broder, D., Finn, R. A., Milano, A. J., Newberg, L. A., & Whittet, D. C. B. (2009). Effect of night laboratories on learning objectives for a nonmajor astronomy class. Astronomy Education Review, 7(2), 66–73.
Kavanagh, C., & Sneider, C. (2007a). Learning about gravity I. Free fall: a guide for teachers and curriculum developers. Astronomy Education Review, 5, 21–52.
Kavanagh, C., & Sneider, C. (2007b). Learning about gravity II. Trajectories and orbits: a guide for teachers and curriculum developers. Astronomy Education Review, 5, 53–102.
Kikas, E. (1998). The impact of teaching on students’ definitions and explanations of astronomical phenomena. Learning and Instruction, 8, 439–454.
Kikas, E. (2000). The influence of teaching on students’ explanations and illustrations of the day/night cycle and seasonal changes. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 15, 281–295.
Lee, O., & Anderson, C. W. (1993). Task engagement and conceptual change in middle school science classrooms. American Educational Research Journal, 30(3), 585–610.
McLaughlin, M., Irby, M. A., & Langman, J. (2001). Urban sanctuaries: neighborhood organizations in the lives and futures of inner-city youth. San Francisco, CA: Jossey Bass.
Megalakaki, O. (2009). Les conceptions naïves: Connaissances organisées, bases des changements conceptuels. Psychologie Française, 54, 1–9.
Noce, G., Torosantucci, G., & Vicentini, M. (1988). The floating of objects on the Moon: prediction from a theory or experimental facts? International Journal of Science Education, 10, 61–70.
Nussbaum, J., & Novak, J. D. (1976). An assessment of children’s concept of the Earth utilizing structural interviews. Science Education, 60, 535–550.
Ogborn, J. (1985). Understanding students’ understandings: an example from dynamics. European Journal of Science Education, 7(2), 141–150.
Orion, N., & Hofstein, A. (1994). Factors that influence learning during a scientific field trip in a natural environment. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 31(10), 1097–119.
Özdemir, G., & Clark, D. (2007). An overview on conceptual change theories. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science & Technology Education, 3(4), 351–361.
Pines, A. L., & West, L. H. T. (1986). Conceptual understanding and science learning: an interpretation of research within a sources-of-knowledge framework. Science Education, 70(5), 583–604.
Posner, G. J., Strike, K. A., Hewson, P. W., & Gertzog, W. A. (1982). Accommodation of a scientific conception: toward a theory of conceptual change. Science Education, 66, 211–227.
Sharma, M., Millar, R., Smith, A., & Sefton, I. (2004). Students’ understandings of gravity in an orbiting spaceship. Research in Science Education, 34(1), 267–289.
Siegal, M., Butterworth, G., & Newcombe, P. A. (2004). Culture and children’s cosmology. Developmental Science, 7, 308–324.
Smith, C., Maclin, D., Grosslight, L., & Davis, H. (1997). Teaching for understanding: a study of students’ preinstruction theories of matter and a comparison of the effectiveness of two approaches to teaching about matter and density. Cognition and Instruction, 15(3), 317–393.
Sneider, C., & Pulos, S. (1983). Children’s cosmographies: understanding the Earth’s shape and gravity. Science Education, 67, 205–221.
Stinner, A. (1995). The story of force: from Aristotle to Einstein, and the contexts of inquiry in physics education: supporting a motivational base and providing a theoretical structure. In L. Kovács (Ed.), The history of science in teaching physics. Eötvos Physical Society: Hungary.
Stroud, N., Groome, M., Connolly, R., & Sheppard, K. (2007). Toward a methodology for informal astronomy education research. Astronomy Education Review, 5(2), 146–158.
Van Oers, B. (1998). From context to contextualizing. Learning and Instruction, 8(6), 473–488.
Van Schijndel, T. J. P., & Raijmakers, M. E. J. (2015). Parent explanation and preschoolers’ exploratory behavior and learning in a shadow exhibition.
Vosniadou, S. (1991). Designing curricula for conceptual restructuring: lessons from the study of knowledge acquisition in astronomy. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 23(3), 219–237.
Vosniadou, S. (1994). Capturing and modelling the process of conceptual change. Learning and Instruction, 4, 45–69.
Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W. F. (1992). Mental models of the Earth: a study of conceptual change in childhood. Cognitive Psychology, 24, 535–585.
Vosniadou, S., & Brewer, W. F. (1994). Mental models of the day/night cycle. Cognitive Science, 18, 123–183.
Weber, T. (2002). Lieux de découverte: Les musées en tant que ressource pour l’éducation. In M. Xanthoudaki (Ed.), Lieux de découverte: Les musées pour enseigner la science et la technologie (pp. 27–35). Milan: T&T Studio.
Acknowledgments
This research was supported by a grant from the French Space Agency (CNES) and Midi-Pyrénées Regional Council. We would like to thank the students, their physics teacher Kamal Haddouch and the administrative staff of the Jean Moulin middle school in Toulouse. The authors are also grateful to the Cité de l’Espace museum in Toulouse and its educators for providing the informal teaching.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Valérie Frède. Octogone Interdisciplinary Research Unit (EA 4156) “Cognition, Communication & Development” Laboratory, University of Toulouse—Jean Jaurès, Toulouse, France. Octogone-ECCD, Maison de la Recherche, Université Toulouse—Jean Jaurès, 5, allées Antonio-Machado, 31 058 Toulouse Cedex 1, France. E-mail: frede@univ-tlse2.fr, Tel.: +33 056 1503970
Current themes of research:
Is a researcher and a lecturer at the University of Toulouse Jean Jaurès in psychology. Her interest is focused on knowledge’s developement in science, on conceptual changes processes and cross cultural studies in astronomy.
Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:
Frède, V., Nobes, G., Frappart, S., Panagiotaki, G., Troadec, B., & Martin, A. (2011). The acquisition of scientific knowledge: the influence of methods of questioning and analysis on the interpretation of children’s conceptions of the Earth. Infant and Child Development, 20(4), 432–448.
Sören Frappart. Octogone Interdisciplinary Research Unit (EA 4156) “Cognition, Communication & Development” Laboratory, University of Toulouse—Jean Jaurès, Toulouse, France. Octogone-ECCD, Maison de la Recherche, Université Toulouse—Jean Jaurès, 5, allées Antonio-Machado, 31 058 Toulouse Cedex 1, France. E-mail: frappart@univ-tlse2.fr, Tel.: +33 056 1503970
Current themes of research:
Is a researcher and a lecturer at the University of Toulouse Jean Jaurès in psychology. Her interest is focused on knowledge’s acquisition and construction in science.
Most relevant publications in the field of Psychology of Education:
Frappart, S., Raijmakers, M., Frède, V. (2014). What do Children Know and Understand about Universal Gravitation? Structural and Developmental Aspects. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 120, 17–38.
Appendices
Appendix 1. Descriptions of the formal teaching in the classroom and informal instruction in the space museum
1.1 Formal classroom teaching
All the students underwent formal teaching based on textbooks and teacher explanations about Earth-Moon-Sun dynamics provided by the same physics teacher. The lesson lasted about 90 min.
In class, space concepts and gravitation (interactional gravitation) were introduced as part of the general study of the Earth-Sun-Moon system’s properties and dynamics (i.e. we live all around the Earth, the Earth revolves around the Sun under the effect of gravitation, the Moon revolves around the Earth, etc.).
The teacher described the movements in the solar system (orbital motion of the Earth around the Sun, orbital motion of the Moon around the Earth, ecliptic and other orbital planes, etc.) and used the verb gravitate to describe them. The fact that other planets in the solar system also revolve around the Sun for the same reason (gravitational interaction) was also underlined.
After a document search on Earth-Sun-Moon dynamics in textbooks, students had to answer a series of questions related to gravitation, such as
-
What is the movement of the Earth around the Sun?
-
What is the movement of the Moon around the Earth?
-
What is the ecliptic plane?
Pupils were then introduced to other phenomena linked to gravitation and to different configurations of the system of celestial bodies. In particular, the teacher explained the phases of the Moon, eclipses and seasons.
The lesson ended with a series of exercises summarizing the relevant notions linked to the properties of the Earth-Moon-Sun system and their interactional dynamics.
The teacher used several grade seven physics and chemistry textbooks, published by Nathan (2006, 2009), Delagrave (2006) and Didier (2006), to develop and illustrate his lesson.
Prior knowledge was not questioned or taken into account by the teacher. The students did not discuss the concepts in a collaborative way. Instead, they took notes and followed what the teacher said. This teacher did not adopt a constructivist view of learning in this formal lesson, and there was no generalization of the action of gravity.
1.2 Science museum workshop
The experimental group underwent informal teaching at the Cité de l’Espace space museum in Toulouse. The half-day visit featured a workshop on weightlessness, followed by the projection of a 3D film about the Moon landings.
The workshop on weightlessness, which lasted 80 min, was led by a museum educator in the presence of the physics teacher and one of the authors. Information was given about the planets’ properties and gravitation in general, and the students’ prior knowledge was probed. For example, when some students suggested that the planets’ size could explain the gravitational forces they exerted, this assumption was discussed collectively and rejected by comparing Uranus and Neptune, which have similar sizes but different attractive forces. They studied and discussed mass and weight, gravity, space and weightlessness conditions. Observations, experiments and questions were based on a constructivist approach, and students had to participate actively in the workshop.
The interactive workshop began with three questions:
-
Is there any gravity on the Moon?
The museum educator started by tackling common erroneous ideas, asking questions such as “Is there any gravity on the Moon?” Most of the students said that there was none. When the museum educator asked them why, they explained that it was because there was no air or no atmosphere on the Moon. To wean them off this common misconception, the museum educator suggested that the students test it. Step by step, the students were encouraged to put into words their underlying assumptions, like “gravity exists when there is air”, then think up an experiment to test them. Following this collaborative discussion time, a vacuum bell with a small balloon inside was used to create an environment where the air could be removed. The aim was to see whether the balloon behaved differently when there was no air. When the experiment was conducted, the students were able to see that the balloon behaved as usual, even when there was no air in the bell (i.e. it fell). They concluded that there is no link between air and the attractive forces of gravity.
-
Does a parachute work in weightlessness?
This second question steered the discussion towards the role of air friction during a fall, and what happens in space, where there is no air. Students had far more difficulty with this topic. Nevertheless, one of them made the link between a question asked in the pretest (i.e. the lift in free fall) and the present discussion. Even so, the definition of weightlessness as “when gravitational forces alone are exerted” remained quite abstruse, and there was not enough time for the students to assimilate it.
-
Are we attracted by any celestial body in weightlessness?
Students’ answers to these questions, reflecting their prior knowledge and misconceptions, informed the subsequent discussion. Several experiments were shown to the students and explained during the workshop:
Vacuum bell experiment: This showed that the Earth exerts an attractive force on an object inside the bell, whether or not there is air.
Weight versus mass distinction: The educator explained the distinction between weight and mass, using the example of the mass of an astronaut’s spacesuit (mass = 180 kg; force of gravity = 1800 N on Earth and 300 N on the Moon).
Video showing Commander D. Scott simultaneously drop a feather and a hammer: This video shows that in the absence of air (vacuum), as on the Moon, there is no air friction, so the feather and the hammer fall at the same rate.
Planets’ attractive forces: The specific attractive forces of each planet in the solar system were explored. Here, the educator dealt with a well-known misconception associating planet size with attractive force.
Weightlessness definition: Weightlessness is defined as a state where only gravity acts. Students were introduced to a variety of contexts where weightlessness can be observed, such as the weightlessness tower, parabolic flights and an orbiting spaceship.
Experiments in parabolic flights: The workshop ended with videos of experiments performed in weightlessness, such as releasing air or helium balloons, dropping balls and pouring liquids.
Students then watched a 45-min 3D film called Walking on the Moon (http://magnificentdesolation.imax.com/) about the first lunar landing missions (Apollo missions from 1969 to 1972). In this film, students were able to (1) take in technical aspects such as how to reach the Moon, (2) watch humans behaving on the Moon (walking, jumping, etc.) and (3) compare the Moon/Earth contexts (e.g. spacesuits, ways of communicating).
Appendix 2
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Frappart, S., Frède, V. Conceptual change about outer space: how does informal training combined with formal teaching affect seventh graders’ understanding of gravitation?. Eur J Psychol Educ 31, 515–535 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-015-0275-4
Received:
Revised:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-015-0275-4