Abstract
A series of shaking table tests were conducted to investigate the failure mechanism of slope models prepared using sand and gravel mixtures derived from open pit slopes by subjecting them to vibration for extended periods of time. The dynamic response is analyzed based on the acceleration amplifications measured at different elevations. The horizontal PGA amplification factors first increase and then decrease with an increase in frequency, reaching a peak value at the natural frequency of 20 Hz. The horizontal PGA amplification factors increased for frequency values lower than 20 with an increase in the input amplitude; however, they decreased for frequency values higher than 20. An increase in excitation duration typically contributes to trigger slope deformation; however, its effect increases rapidly for longer excitation periods. A novel technique is developed for the estimation of the deformation in slope models using an image processing program for this study based on image recognition and data extraction. Furthermore, the slope stability behavior is analyzed based on the numerical simulations considering the disturbed state concept (DSC) for rigorous analyses. Results of this study are of interest in engineering practice applications for taking measures to prevent natural disasters associated with open pit slopes formed due to mining activity.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The data presented in this study are available on request from the corresponding author.
References
Abe K, Nakamura S, Nakamura H, Shiomi K (2017) Numerical study on dynamic behavior of slope models including weak layers from deformation to failure using material point method. Soils Found. 57(2):155–175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sandf.2017.03.001
Aghababaei M, Okamoto C, Koliou M, Nagae, T, Pantelides CP, Ryan KL, Barbosa AR, Pei SL, van de Lindt JW, Dashti S (2020) Full-scale shake table test damage data collection using terrestrial laser-scanning techniques. J Struct Eng 147(3) https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)st.1943-541x.0002905
An X, Ning Y, Ma G, He L (2014) Modeling progressive failures in rock slopes with non-persistent joints using the numerical manifold method. Int J Numer Anal Methods Geomech. 38(7):679–701. https://doi.org/10.1002/nag.2226
Bao Y, Li Y, Zhang Y, Yan J, Zhou X, Zhang X (2022) Investigation of the role of crown crack in cohesive soil slope and its effect on slope stability based on the extended finite element method. Nat Hazards 110:295–314. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04947-8
Barbosa AR, Rodrigues LG, Sinha A, Higgins C, Zimmerman RB, Breneman S, Pei SL, van de Lindt JW, Berman J, McDonnell E (2021) Shake-table experimental testing and performance of topped and untopped cross-laminated timber diaphragms. J Struct Eng 147(4). https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)st.1943-541x.0002914.
Cao LC, Zhang JJ, Wang ZJ, Liu FC, Liu Y, Zhou YY (2019) Dynamic response and dynamic failure mode of the slope subjected to earthquake and rainfall. Landslides. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-019-01179-7
Che AL, Yang HK, Wang B, Ge XR (2016) Wave propagations through jointed rock masses and their effects on the stability of slopes. Eng Geol. 201:45–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.12.018
Chen JC, Wang LM, Pu XW, Li FX, Li TL (2020) Experimental study on the dynamic characteristics of low angle loess slope under the influence of long- and short-term effects of rainfall before earthquake. Eng Geol. 273:105684. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2020.105684
Desai, C.S. 1974. A consistent finite element technique for work-softening behaviour. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Computational Methods in Nonlinear Mechanics. Austin, Texas, USA.
Ersöz T, Özköse M, Topal T (2021) Effect of disturbed zone thickness on rock slope stability. Nat Hazards 108:1919–1942. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-021-04762-1
Feng S, Liu HW, Ng CWW (2020) Analytical analysis of the mechanical and hydrological effects of vegetation on shallow slope stability. Comput Geotech 118:103335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compgeo.2019.103335
Gischig VS, Eberhardt E, Moore JR, Hungr O (2015) On the seismic response of deep-seated rock slope instabilities - insights from numerical modeling. Eng Geol. 193:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2015.04.003
Halatchev Rossen, Gabeva Deliana (2017) Probabilistic analysis of seismic impact on open pit slope stability. Int J Mining, Reclam Environ 31(3):167–186. https://doi.org/10.1080/17480930.2015.1133260
He Y, Hazarika H, Yasufuku N, Teng J, Jiang Z, Han Z (2015) Estimation of lateral force acting on piles to stabilize landslides. Nat Hazards 79(3):1981–2003
Hsieh YM, Lee KC, Jeng FS, Huang TH (2011) Can tilt tests provide correct insight regarding frictional behavior of sliding rock block under seismic excitation. Engineering Geology 122(1–2):84–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENGGEO.2010.11.008
Hu H, Huang Y, Xiong M (2021) Zhao L (2021) Investigation of seismic behavior of slope reinforced by anchored pile structures using shaking table tests. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng. 150(4–6):106900. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2021.106900
Huang CC (2022) Experimental verification of seismic bearing capacity of near-slope footings using shaking table tests. J Earthq Eng. 2:1–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2019.1665148
Huang S, Lyu Y, Sha H, Xiu L (2021) Seismic performance assessment of unsaturated soil slope in different groundwater levels. Landslides. 2021:1–21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-021-01674-w
Huang B, Günay S, Lu W (2021) Seismic assessment of freestanding ceramic vase with shaking table testing and performance-based earthquake engineering. J Earthq Eng 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2021.1979132
Iai S (1989) Similitude for shaking table tests on soil–structure–fluid model in 1-g gravitational field. Soils and Foundations 29(1):105–118
Jeong K, Shibuya S, Kawabata T, Sawada Y, Nakazawa H (2020) Seismic performance and numerical simulation of earth-fill dam with geosynthetic clay liner in shaking table test. Geotext Geomembranes. 48(2):190–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2019.11.006
Lei H, Liu X, Song Y, Xu Y (2021) Stability analysis of slope reinforced by double-row stabilizing piles with different locations. Nat Hazards 106:19–42. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-04446-2
Li M, Cheng J (2022) The starting mechanism study on rainfall-induced sloop loose source in strong earthquake area. Nat Hazards. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05442-4
Li HH, Lin CH, Zu W, Chen CC, Weng MC (2018) Dynamic response of a dip slope with multi-slip planes revealed by shaking table tests. Landslides 15(9):1731–1743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-018-0992-2
Li H, Liu Y, Liu L, Liu B, Xia X (2019) Numerical evaluation of topographic effects on seismic response of single-faced rock slopes. Bull Eng Geol Environ. 78(3):1873–1891. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-017-1200-7
Li, R., & Teng, Y. (2022). An improved DebrisInterMixingFoam for debris flow simulation: numerical investigation and application. Nat Hazards, 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05376-x
Li X, Kurata M, Wang Y-H, Nakashima M (2021) Estimating earthquake-induced displacement responses of building structures using time-varying model and limited acceleration data. J Struct Eng 147(4). https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)st.1943-541x.0002973
Lin YL, Yang GL (2013) Dynamic behavior of railway embankment slope subjected to seismic excitation. Nat Hazards 69(1):219–235. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-013-0701-3
Lin YL, Leng WM, Yang GL, Li L, Yang JS (2015) Seismic response of embankment slopes with different reinforcing measures in shaking table tests. Nat Hazards 76:791–810. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-014-1517-5
Lin YL, Li YX, Yang GL, Li Y (2017) Experimental and numerical study on the seismic behavior of anchoring frame beam supporting soil slope on rock mass. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng. 98:12–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2017.04.008
Lin CH, Li HH, Weng MC (2018) Discrete element simulation of the dynamic response of a dip slope under shaking table tests. Eng Geol. 243:168–180. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.07.005
Liu S, Huang X, Zhou A, Hu J, Wang W (2018) (2018) Soil-rock slope stability analysis by considering the nonuniformity of rocks. Math Probl Eng. 2018(6):1–15. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/3121604
Liu X, Cai G, Liu L, Zhou Z (2020) Investigation of internal force of anti-slide pile on landslides considering the actual distribution of soil resistance acting on anti-slide piles. Nat Hazards 102:1369–1392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-03971-4
Liu S, Wang H, Xu W, Cheng Z, Xiang Z, Xie WC (2020) Numerical investigation of the influence of rock characteristics on the soil-rock mixture (SRM) slopes stability. J Civ Eng 24(7):1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-020-0034-1
Liu X, Cai G, Liu L, Zhou Z (2020) Investigation of internal force of anti-slide pile on landslides considering the actual distribution of soil resistance acting on anti-slide piles. Nat Hazards 102:1369–1392. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-03971-4
Liu, K., Liu, H. (2022). Simulation of the earthquake-induced soil-rock mixed accumulation body sliding movement using discrete–continuous coupled approach. Natural Hazards, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05461-1
Liu H, Zhao Y, Dong J, Wang Z (2021) Experimental study of the dynamic response and failure mode of anti-dip rock slopes. Bull Eng Geol Environ 2021(5). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-021-02313-3
Lu Y (2015) Deformation and failure mechanism of slope in three dimensions. Journal of Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering 7(2):109–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JRMGE.2015.02.008
Lu Y, Tan Y (2018) Li X (2018) Stability analyses on slopes of clay-rock mixtures using discrete element method. Eng Geol. 244:116–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2018.07.021
Luo Y, Del Gaudio V, Huang R, Wang Y, Wasowski J (2014) Evidence of hillslope directional amplification from accelerometer recordings at Qiaozhuang (Sichuan - China). Eng Geol. 183:193–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.10.015
Lysmer J, Kuhlemeyer RL (1969) Finite dynamic model for infinite media. J Eng Mech Division 95:859–878
Ma N, Wu H, Ma H, Wu X, Wang G (2019) Examining dynamic soil pressures and the effectiveness of different pile structures inside reinforced slopes using shaking table tests. Soil Dyn Earthquake Eng 116:293–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SOILDYN.2018.10.005
Ma N, Wu HG, Ma HM, Wu XY, Wu GH (2019) Examining dynamic soil pressures and the effectiveness of different pile structures inside reinforced slopes using shaking table tests. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng 116:293–303. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soildyn.2018.10.005
Meymand, Philip J., 1998. Shaking table scale model tests of nonlinear soil–pile–superstructure interaction in soft clay, Ph.D. dissertation, U.C. Berkeley.
Mu, J. Q., Li, T. T., Pei, X. J., Huang, R. Q., Lan, F. A., & Zou, X. Q. (2022). Evolution mechanism and deformation stability analysis of rock slope block toppling for early warnings. Nat Hazards, 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-022-05422-8
Murao H, Nakai K, Noda T, Yoshikawa T (2018) Deformation–failure mechanism of saturated fill slopes due to resonance phenomena based on 1g shaking-table tests. Can Geotech J 55(11):1668–1681. https://doi.org/10.1139/cgj-2017-0385
Padmanabhan G, Shanmugam GK (2022) Reliquefaction assessment studies on saturated sand deposits under repeated acceleration loading using 1-g shaking table experiments. J Earthq Eng 26(6):2888–2910. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2020.1778588
Pu X, Wang L, Wang P, Chai S (2020) Study of shaking table test of seismic subsidence loess landslides induced by the coupling effect of earthquakes and rainfall. Nat Hazards 103(1):923–945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-020-04019-3
Shi ZM, Wang YQ, Peng M, Guan SG, Chen JF (2015) Landslide dam deformation analysis under aftershocks using large-scale shaking table tests measured by videogrammetric technique[J]. Eng Geol 186:68–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2014.09.008
Song DQ, Che AL, Zhu RJ, Ge XR (2018) Dynamic response characteristics of a rock slope with discontinuous joints under the combined action of earthquakes and rapid water drawdown. Landslides 15(6):1109–1125. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10346-017-0932-6
Song D, Liu X, Huang J et al (2021) Seismic cumulative failure effects on a reservoir bank slope with a complex geological structure considering plastic deformation characteristics using shaking table tests. Eng Geol. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106085
Song, D., Liu, X., Huang, J., Zhang, Y., Zhang, J., & Nkwenti, B. N. (2021). Seismic cumulative failure effects on a reservoir bank slope with a complex geological structure considering plastic deformation characteristics using shaking table tests[J]. Eng Geol 286(3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2021.106085.
Srilatha N, Madhavi Latha G, Puttappa CG (2013) Effect of frequency on seismic response of reinforced soil slopes in shaking table tests. Geotext Geomembranes. 36:27–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2012.10.004
Sun S, Sun H, Wang Y, Wei J, Liu J, Kanungo DP (2014) Effect of the combination characteristics of rock structural plane on the stability of a rock-mass slope. Bull Eng Geol Environ 73(4):987–995. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-014-0593-9
Sun ZL, Kong LW, Guo AG, Xu GF, Bai W (2019) Experimental and numerical investigations of the seismic response of a rock–soil mixture deposit slope. Environ Earth Sci. 78(24):716. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-019-8717-y
Tamate S, Hori T (2018) Monitoring shear strain in shallow subsurface using mini pipe strain meter for detecting potential threat of slope failure. Geotech Test J 41(2):413–424. https://doi.org/10.1520/GTJ20160117
Tian, Y., Lu, X., Huang, D., Wang, T. (2022). SCI effects under complex terrains: shaking table tests and numerical simulation. J Earthq Eng., 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2022.2074921
Usluogullari OF, Temugan A, Duman ES (2016) Comparison of slope stabilization methods by threedimensional finite element analysis. Nat Hazards 81:1027–1050. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-015-2118-7
Villaseñor-Reyes CI, Dávila-Harris P, Hernández-Madrigal VM, Figueroa-Miranda S (2018) Deepseated gravitational slope deformations triggered by extreme rainfall and agricultural practices (eastern Michoacan, Mexico). Landslides 15:1867–1879
Wang KL, Lin ML (2011) Initiation and displacement of landslide induced by earthquake - a study of shaking table model slope test. Eng Geol 122(1) https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2011.04.008
Wang J, Yang G, Tang X (2021) Test on stability of concrete-rockfill combination dam. J Earthq Eng 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2021.1994055
Wang, J., Yang, J., Zhuang, H., Ma, G., Sun, Y. (2021). Seismic responses of a large unequal-span underground subway station in liquefiable soil using shaking table test. J Earthq Eng. 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2021.1991523
Wu, D., Tesfamariam, S., Xiong, Y. (2022). FRP-laminated rubber isolator: theoretical study and shake table test on isolated building. J Earthq Eng, 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2022.2074914
Xu M, Tang YF, Liu XS, Yang HQ, Luo B (2018) A shaking table model test on a rock slope anchored with adaptive anchor cables. Int J Rock Mech Min Sci. 112:201–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijrmms.2018.10.021
Yagi, S., Teramoto, A., Yeow, T., Seike, T., Kusunoki, K., Nakamura, I. (2021). Validating resilient detailing of Japanese ceilings, windows, and wall tiles using an E-defense shake-table test. J Earthq Eng, 1-27. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2021.1988764.
Yamagishi H, Yamazaki F (2018) Landslides by the 2018 Hokkaido Iburi-Tobu earthquake on September 6. Landslides 15(12):2521–2524
Yan X, Yuan J, Yu H et al (2016) Multi-point shaking table test design for long tunnels under non-uniform seismic loading. Tunn Undergr Sp Technol. 59:114–126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tust.2016.07.002
Yang CW, Feng N, Zhang JJ, Bi JW, Zhang J (2015) Research on time-frequency analysis method of seismic stability of covering-layer type slope subjected to complex wave. Environ Earth Sci. 74(6):5295–5306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12665-015-4540-2
Yeow, T. Z., Kusunoki, K., Nakamura, I., Hibino, Y., Fukai, S., Safi, W. A. (2021). E-defense shake-table test of a building designed for post-disaster functionality. J Earthq Eng 1-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2020.1865219.
Yünkül K, Gürbüz A (2022) Shaking table study on seismic behavior of MSE wall with inclined backfill soils reinforced by polymeric geostrips. Geotext Geomembranes. 50(1):116–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geotexmem.2021.09.005
Zhang CL, Jiang GL, Su LJ, Lei D, Liu WM, Wang ZM (2019) Large-scale shaking table model test on seismic performance of bridge-pile-foundation slope with anti-sliding piles: a case study. Bull Eng Geol Environ 79(3):1429–1447. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-019-01614-y
Zheng Y, Chen CX, Liu TT, Zhang HN, Sun CY (2018) Theoretical and numerical study on the block-flexure toppling failure of rock slopes. Eng Geol 263:105309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enggeo.2019.105309
Zhou, H., He, C., Wang, X., Chen, Y., Li, J. (2021). Assessment of the seismic response of shallow buried elliptical tunnels. J Earthq Eng 1-23. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2021.2009057
Funding
Financial support for this work was provided by the Outstanding Scholar of Sun Yuezaki (800015Z1179), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (51474220), and the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central University’s Graduate Students Research and Innovation Ability Improvement Project(2022YJSNY12).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Dongliang Ji: methodology, validation, software, writing—original draft. Hongbao Zhao: conceptualization, supervision, resources, funding acquisition, writing—review and editing. Sai Vanapalli: conceptualization, supervision, writing—review and editing.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Ji, D., Zhao, H. & Vanapalli, S.K. Investigations for understanding the failure mechanism associated with vibration effects on open-pit slopes constituting of sand and gravel mixtures. Bull Eng Geol Environ 83, 105 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-024-03595-z
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10064-024-03595-z