Abstract
Raindrop size distribution (DSD) plays a significant role in understanding the microphysical process of rainfall and the quantitative precipitation estimation (QPE) in hydrology, especially in urban environments which has spatial and temporal variability. In this study, the seasonal variation in DSD and its response to cloud regimes over two contrasting coastal sites (i.e. Kolkata (22.58° N, 88.45° E) and Trivandrum (8.43° N, 76.98° E) of India obtained using laser precipitation monitor (LPM) disdrometer for more than 2 years are investigated. The results show a significant difference in DSD spectra between Kolkata and Trivandrum. It is observed that the smaller-size (< 0.5 mm) particles are more dominant over Trivandrum than at Kolkata. During the monsoon, larger raindrops (D > 2 mm) dominate over Kolkata when compared with Trivandrum and clear separations in DSD were observed in the pre-monsoon season. The percentage contribution of the rain types to the total rainfall duration over Kolkata (Trivandrum) is found to be about 74.13% (80.50%), 18.97% (15.35%) and 6.98% (4.13%) for stratiform, transition and convective, respectively. In the convective rain, the smaller (mid-size, 1 < D < 3 mm and large, D > 3 mm) drops concentrations are higher (lower) over Trivandrum, while mid-size and larger (smaller, D < 0.5 mm) drops are higher (lower) over Kolkata. The convective rains are dominated by continental/maritime and maritime over Kolkata and Trivandrum, respectively. As the rain rate increases, the DSD spectra have larger widths with peaks around diameter D ~ 0.5 mm over both the locations. Further, the empirical relations between reflectivity (Z) and rain rate (R) were established, which are found to be different for different rain types. In each rain type, the Z-R relationship over Kolkata (Trivandrum) is Z = 56.4*R1.94 (Z = 21.3*R2.18), Z = 118.8*R1.89 (Z = 106.4*R1.83), and Z = 388.0*R1.54 (Z = 303.1*R1.38) for convective, transition and stratiform rains, respectively. These results clearly indicate that the two locations are dominated by different cloud systems and microphysical processes. Therefore, the present results are expected to provide a better understanding of regional DSD variability and Z-R relationship with seasons, rain types and cloud microphysical processes, which is the significance of the present study.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
The LPM data used in this study can be obtained on request. The rain integral parameters are estimated using the equations mentioned in this study, which can be readily implemented in a program. However, if anyone encounters difficulties, they may contact the corresponding author to obtain the code, which was written in MatLab (MATLAB Version: 9.12.0.1884302 (R2022a); MATLAB License Number: 41082403).
References
Angulo-Martínez M, Barros AP (2015) Measurement uncertainty in rainfall kinetic energy and intensity relationships for soil erosion studies: an evaluation using PARSIVEL disdrometers in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. Geomorphology 228:28–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2014.07.036
Angulo-Martínez M, Beguería S, Latorre B, Fernández-Raga M (2018) Comparison of precipitation measurements by OTT Parsivel2 and Thies LPM optical disdrometers. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 22:2811–2837. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-22-2811-2018
Atlas D, Srivastava RC, Sekhon RS (1973) Doppler radar characteristics of precipitation at vertical incidence. Rev Geophys 11:1–35. https://doi.org/10.1029/RG011i001p00001
Atlas D, Williams CR (2003) The anatomy of a continental tropical convective storm. J Atmos Sci 60:3–15. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060%3c0003:TAOACT%3e2.0.CO;2
Beard KV (1976) Terminal velocity and shape of cloud and precipitation drops aloft. J Atmos Sci 33:851–864. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(1976)033%3c0851:TVASOC%3e2.0.CO;2
Bringi VN, Chandrasekar V, Hubbert J, Gorgucci E, Randeu WL, Schoenhuber M (2003) Raindrop size distribution in different climatic regimes from disdrometer and dual-polarized radar analysis. J Atmos Sci 60:354–365. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2003)060%3c0354:RSDIDC%3e2.0.CO;2
Bringi V, Chandrasekar V (2001) Polarimetric Doppler weather radar: principles and applications. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Caracciolo C, Porcù F, Prodi F (2008) Precipitation classification at mid-latitudes in terms of drop size distribution parameters. Adv Geosci 16:11–17. https://doi.org/10.5194/adgeo-16-11-2008
Chakraborty S, Saha U, Maitra A (2015) Relationship of convective precipitation with atmospheric heat flux—a regression approach over an Indian tropical location. Atmos Res 161–162:116–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2015.04.008
Chakravarty K, Ernest Raj P, Bhattacharya A, Maitra A (2013) Microphysical characteristics of clouds and precipitation during pre-monsoon and monsoon period over a tropical Indian station. J Atmos Solar-Terrestrial Phys 94:28–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2012.12.016
Chakravarty K, Khandare S, Kumar NVPK, Bhangale R, Maitra A (2021) The interseasonal features of precipitation microphysics over Thiruvananthapuram and Kolkata—the two tropical stations of Indian sub-continent. J Atmos Solar-Terrestrial Phys 222:105710. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2021.105710
Chakravarty K, Raj PE (2013) Raindrop size distributions and their association with characteristics of clouds and precipitation during monsoon and post-monsoon periods over a tropical Indian station. Atmos Res 124:181–189. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2013.01.005
Chang Y, Ma Q, Guo L, Duan J, Li J, Zhang X, Guo X, Lou X, Chen B (2022) Characteristics of raindrop size distributions during meiyu season in Mount Lushan. Eastern China J Meteorol Soc Japan 100:57–76. https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2022-003
Chen B, Hu Z, Liu L, Zhang G (2017) Raindrop size distribution measurements at 4,500 m on the Tibetan Plateau during TIPEX-III. J Geophys Res Atmos 122:11092–11106. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JD027233
Chen B, Wang J, Gong D (2016) Raindrop size distribution in a midlatitude continental squall line measured by thies optical disdrometers over east China. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 55:621–634. https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-15-0127.1
Cho HK, Kenneth P, Bowman G (2004) A comparison of gamma and lognormal distributions for characterizing satellite rain rates from the tropical rainfall measuring mission. J App Met 43:1586–1597
Das S, Chatterjee C (2018) Rain characterization based on maritime and continental origin at a tropical location. J Atmos Solar-Terrestrial Phys 173:109–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2018.02.011
Das S, Maitra A (2018) Characterization of tropical precipitation using drop size distribution and rain rate-radar reflectivity relation. Theor Appl Climatol 132:275–286. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00704-017-2073-1
Das SK, Konwar M, Chakravarty K, Deshpande SM (2017) Raindrop size distribution of different cloud types over the Western Ghats using simultaneous measurements from micro-rain radar and disdrometer. Atmos Res 186:72–82. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.11.003
Deo A, Walsh KJE (2016) Contrasting tropical cyclone and non-tropical cyclone related rainfall drop size distribution at Darwin. Aust Atmos Res 181:81–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.06.015
Dolan B, Fuchs B, Rutledge SA, Barnes EA, Thompson EJ (2018) Primary modes of global drop size distributions. J Atmos Sci 75:1453–1476. https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS-D-17-0242.1
Frasson RPM, da Cunha LK, Krajewski WF (2011) Assessment of the Thies optical disdrometer performance. Atmos Res 101:237–255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2011.02.014
Friedrich K, Higgins S, Masters FJ, Lopez CR (2013) Articulating and stationary PARSIVEL disdrometer measurements in conditions with strong winds and heavy rainfall. J Atmos Ocean Technol 30:2063–2080. https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-12-00254.1
Gao W, Sui CH, Chen Wang TC, Chang WY (2011) An evaluation and improvement of microphysical parameterization from a two-moment cloud microphysics scheme and the Southwest Monsoon Experiment (SoWMEX)/Terrain-influenced Monsoon Rainfall Experiment (TiMREX) observations. J Geophys Res Atmos 116:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JD015718
Ghada W, Buras A, Lüpke M, Schunk C, Menzel A (2018) Rain microstructure parameters vary with large-scale weather conditions in Lausanne. Switz Remote Sens 10:1–23. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs10060811
Guyot A, Pudashine J, Protat A, Uijlenhoet R, Pauwels VRN, Seed A, Walker JP (2019) Effect of disdrometer type on rain drop size distribution characterisation: a new dataset for south-eastern Australia. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 23:4737–4761. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-4737-2019
Harikumar R (2016) Orographic effect on tropical rain physics in the Asian monsoon region. Atmos Sci Lett 17:556–563. https://doi.org/10.1002/asl.692
Hu Z, Srivastava RC (1995) Evolution of raindrop size distribution by coalescence, breakup, and evaporation: theory and observations. J Atmos Sci 52:1761–1783
Jaffrain J, Berne A (2012) Quantification of the small-scale spatial structure of the raindrop size distribution from a network of disdrometers. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 51:941–953. https://doi.org/10.1175/JAMC-D-11-0136.1
Jameson AR, Kostinski AB (2001) What is a raindrop size distribution? Bull Am Meteorol Soc 82:1169–1177. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0477(2001)082%3c1169:WIARSD%3e2.3.CO;2
Janapati J, Seela BK, Lin PL, Wang PK, Tseng CH, Reddy KK, Hashiguchi H, Feng L, Das SK, Unnikrishnan CK (2020) Raindrop size distribution characteristics of indian and pacific ocean tropical cyclones observed at India and Taiwan sites. J Meteorol Soc Japan 98:299–317. https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2020-015
Janapati J, Seela BK, Reddy MV, Reddy KK, Lin PL, Rao TN, Liu CY (2017) A study on raindrop size distribution variability in before and after landfall precipitations of tropical cyclones observed over southern India. J Atmos Solar-Terrestrial Phys 159:23–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2017.04.011
Jash D, Resmi EA, Unnikrishnan CK, Sumesh RK, Sreekanth TS, Sukumar N, Ramachandran KK (2019) Variation in rain drop size distribution and rain integral parameters during southwest monsoon over a tropical station: an inter-comparison of disdrometer and micro rain radar. Atmos Res 217:24–36. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2018.10.014
Johannsen LL, Zambon N, Strauss P, Dostal T, Neumann M, Zumr D, Cochrane TA, Blöschl G, Klik A (2020) Comparison of three types of laser optical disdrometers under natural rainfall conditions. Hydrol Sci J 65:524–535. https://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2019.1709641
Konwar M, Das SK, Deshpande SM, Chakravarty K, Goswami BN (2014) Microphysics of clouds and rain over the Western Ghat. J Geophys Res Atmos Res 119:640–6159. https://doi.org/10.1002/2014JD021606
Konwar M, Raut BA, Jayarao Y, Prabhakaran T (2022) Rain microphysical properties over the rain shadow region of India. Atmos Res 275:106224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2022.106224
Krishna Reddy K, Kozu T (2003) Measurements of raindrop size distribution over Gadanki during south-west and north-east monsoon. Indian J Radio Sp Phys 32:286–295
Krishna UVM, Reddy KK, Seela BK, Shirooka R, Lin PL, Pan CJ (2016) Raindrop size distribution of easterly and westerly monsoon precipitation observed over Palau islands in the Western Pacific Ocean. Atmos Res 174–175:41–51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2016.01.013
Lavanya S, Kirankumar NVP (2021) Classification of tropical coastal precipitating cloud systems using disdrometer observations over Thumba. India Atmos Res 253:105477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2021.105477
Lavanya S, Kirankumar NVP, Aneesh S, Subrahmanyam KV, Sijikumar S (2019) Seasonal variation of raindrop size distribution over a coastal station Thumba: a quantitative analysis. Atmos Res 229:86–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2019.06.004
Löffler-Mang M, Joss J (2000) An optical disdrometer for measuring size and velocity of hydrometeors. J Atmos Ocean Technol 17:130–139. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2000)017%3c0130:AODFMS%3e2.0.CO;2
Ma Y, Chen H, Ni G, Chandrasekar V, Gou Y, Zhang W (2020) Microphysical and polarimetric radar signatures of an epic flood event in southern China. Remote Sens. https://doi.org/10.3390/RS12172772
Ma Y, Ni G, Chandra CV, Tian F, Chen H (2019) Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution during rainy seasons in the Beijing urban area and implications for radar rainfall estimation. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 23:4153–4170. https://doi.org/10.5194/hess-23-4153-2019
Maki M, Keenan TD, Sasaki Y, Nakamura K (2001) Characteristics of the raindrop size distribution in tropical continental squall lines observed in Darwin. Aust J Appl Meteorol 40:1393–1412. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2001)040%3c1393:COTRSD%3e2.0.CO;2
Mehta S, Mehta SK, Singh S, Mitra A, Ghosh SK, Raha S (2020) Characteristics of the Z-R relationships observed using micro rain radar (MRR-2) over Darjeeling (27.05° N, 88.26° E): a complex terrain region in the Eastern Himalayas. Pure Appl Geophys 177:4521–4534. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00024-020-02472-6
Mudiar D, Pawar SD, Hazra A, Konwar M, Gopalakrishnan V, Srivastava MK, Goswami BN (2018) Quantification of observed electrical effect on the raindrop size distribution in tropical clouds. J Geophys Res Atmos 123:4527–4544. https://doi.org/10.1029/2017JD028205
Murali Krishna VU, Kumar Das S, Govindaraj Sulochana E, Bhowmik U, Madhukar Deshpande S, Pandithurai G (2021) Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution over the Western Ghats of India: wet versus dry spells of the Indian summer monsoon. Atmos Chem Phys 21:4741–4757. https://doi.org/10.5194/acp-21-4741-2021
Narayana RT, Radhakrishna B, Nakamura K, Prabhakara Rao N (2009) Notes and correspondence differences in raindrop size distribution from southwest monsoon to northeast monsoon at Gadanki. Q J R Meteorol Soc 135:1630–1637. https://doi.org/10.1002/qj.432
Narayana Rao T, Narayana Rao D, Mohan K, Raghavan S (2001) Classification of tropical precipitating systems and associated Z-R relationships. J Geophys Res Atmos 106:17699–17711. https://doi.org/10.1029/2000jd900836
Pickering BS, Neely RR, Harrison D (2019) The Disdrometer Verification Network (DiVeN): a UK network of laser precipitation instruments. Atmos Meas Tech 12:5845–5861. https://doi.org/10.5194/amt-12-5845-2019
Radhakrishna B, Rao TN (2010) Differences in cyclonic raindrop size distribution from southwest to northeast monsoon season and from that of noncyclonic rain. J Geophys Res Atmos 115:1–10. https://doi.org/10.1029/2009JD013355
Radhakrishna B, Saikranthi K, Rao TN (2020) Regional differences in raindrop size distribution within Indian subcontinent and adjoining seas as inferred from global precipitation measurement dual-frequency precipitation radar. J Meteorol Soc Japan 98:573–584. https://doi.org/10.2151/jmsj.2020-030
Radhakrishna B, Satheesh SK, Narayana Rao T, Saikranthi K, Sunilkumar K (2016) Assessment of DSDs of GPM-DPR with ground-based disdrometer at seasonal scale over Gadanki. India J Geophys Res 121:11792–11802. https://doi.org/10.1002/2015JD024628
Raut BA, Konwar M, Murugavel P, Kadge D, Gurnule D, Sayyed I, Todekar K, Malap N, Bankar S, Prabhakaran T (2021) Microphysical origin of raindrop size distributions during the Indian monsoon. Geophys Res Lett 48:e3581. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021GL093581
Seela BK, Janapati J, Lin PL, Reddy KK, Shirooka R, Wang PK (2017) A Comparison study of summer season raindrop size distribution between Palau and Taiwan, two Islands in Western Pacific. J Geophys Res Atmos 122:11787–11805. https://doi.org/10.1002/2017JD026816
Seela BK, Janapati J, Lin PL, Wang PK, Lee MT (2018) Raindrop size distribution characteristics of summer and winter season rainfall over North Taiwan. J Geophys Res Atmos 123:11602–11624. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018JD028307
Serio MA, Carollo FG, Ferro V (2019) Raindrop size distribution and terminal velocity for rainfall erosivity studies. a review. J Hydrol 576:210–228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2019.06.040
Sharma S, Konwar M, Sarma DK, Kalapureddy MCR, Jain AR (2009) Characteristics of rain integral parameters during tropical convective, transition, and stratiform rain at Gadanki and its application in rain retrieval. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 48:1245–1266. https://doi.org/10.1175/2008JAMC1948.1
Smith PL (2003) Raindrop size distributions: exponential or gamma—does the difference matter? J Appl Meteorol Climatol 42:1031–1034. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2003)042%3c1031:RSDEOG%3e2.0.CO;2
Sreekanth TS, Varikoden H, Mohan Kumar G, Resmi EA (2019) Microphysical features of rain and rain events during different seasons over a tropical mountain location using an optical disdrometer. Sci Rep 9:1–15. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-55583-z
Steiner M, Smith JA, Uijlenhoet R (2004) A microphysical interpretation of radar reflectivity-rain rate relationships. J Atmos Sci 61:1114–1131. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0469(2004)061%3c1114:AMIORR%3e2.0.CO;2
Sulochana Y, Rao TN, Sunilkumar K, Chandrika P, Raman MR, Rao SVB (2016) On the seasonal variability of raindrop size distribution and associated variations in reflectivity—rainrate relations at Tirupati, a tropical station. J Atmos Solar-Terr Phys 147:98–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jastp.2016.07.011
Sumesh RK, Resmi EA, Unnikrishnan CK, Jash D, Sreekanth TS, Resmi MCM, Rajeevan K, Nita S, Ramachandran KK (2019) Microphysical aspects of tropical rainfall during bright band events at mid and high-altitude regions over Southern Western Ghats. India Atmos Res 227:178–197. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2019.05.002
Tharammal T, Bala G, Noone D (2017) Impact of deep convection on the isotopic amount effect in tropical precipitation. J Geophys Res 122:1505–1523. https://doi.org/10.1002/2016JD025555
Thomas A, Kanawade VP, Chakravarty K, Srivastava AK (2021) Characterization of raindrop size distributions and its response to cloud microphysical properties. Atmos Res 249:105292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2020.105292
Thurai M, Bringi VN, May PT (2010) CPOL radar-derived drop size distribution statistics of stratiform and convective rain for two regimes in Darwin, Australia. J Atmos Ocean Technol 27:932–942. https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JTECHA1349.1
Tilg AM, Vejen F, Hasager CB, Nielsen M (2020) Rainfall kinetic energy in denmark: relationship with drop size, wind speed, and rain rate. J Hydrometeorol 21:1621–1637. https://doi.org/10.1175/JHM-D-19-0251.1
Tokay A, Bashor PG (2010) An experimental study of small-scale variability of raindrop size distribution. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 49:2348–2365. https://doi.org/10.1175/2010JAMC2269.1
Tokay A, Wolff DB, Petersen WA (2014) Evaluation of the new version of the laser-optical disdrometer, OTT parsivel. J Atmos Ocean Technol 31:1276–1288. https://doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D-13-00174.1
Ulbrich CW (1983) Natural variations in the analytical form of the raindrop size distribution. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 22:1764–1775
Ulbrich CW, Atlas D (1998) Rainfall microphysics and radar properties: analysis methods for drop size spectra. J Appl Meteorol 37:912–923. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(1998)037%3c0912:RMARPA%3e2.0.CO;2
Ulbrich CW, Atlas D (2007) Microphysics of raindrop size spectra: tropical continental and maritime storms. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 46:1777–1791. https://doi.org/10.1175/2007JAMC1649.1
Väisälä (2012) Vaisala Weather TransmitterWXT520, User’s Guide, Finland
Viltard N, Kummerow C, Olson WS, Hong Y (2000) Combined use of the radar and radiometer of TRMM to estimate the influence of drop size distribution on rain retrievals. J Appl Meteorol 39:2103–2114. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0450(2001)040%3c2103:cuotra%3e2.0.co;2
Yang Y, Chen X, Qi Y (2013) Classification of convective/stratiform echoes in radar reflectivity observations using a fuzzy logic algorithm. J Geophys Res Atmos 118:1896–1905. https://doi.org/10.1002/jgrd.50214
Yuter SE, Kingsmill DE, Nance LB, Löffler-Mang M (2006) Observations of precipitation size and fall speed characteristics within coexisting rain and wet snow. J Appl Meteorol Climatol 45:1450–1464. https://doi.org/10.1175/JAM2406.1
Zeng Y, Tong Z, Jiang Y, Zhou Y (2022) Microphysical characteristics of seasonal rainfall observed by a Parsivel disdrometer in the Tianshan Mountains. China Atmos Res 280:106459. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosres.2022.106459
Zeng Y, Yang L, Tong Z, Jiang Y, Zhang Z, Zhang J, Zhou Y, Li J, Liu F, Liu J (2021) Statistical characteristics of raindrop size distribution during rainy seasons in Northwest China. Adv Meteorol. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6667786
Zhang G, Sun J, Brandes EA (2006) Improving parameterization of rain microphysics with disdrometer and radar observations. J Atmos Sci 63:1273–1290. https://doi.org/10.1175/JAS3680.1
Zhang G, Vivekanandan J, Brandes EA, Meneghini R, Kozu T (2003) The shape-slope relation in observed gamma raindrop size distributions: Statistical error or useful information? J Atmos Ocean Technol 20:1106–1119. https://doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2003)020%3c1106:TSRIOG%3e2.0.CO;2
Acknowledgements
We wish to thank authorities of National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL), Department of Space for sponsoring us to establish Kolkata Camp Observatory in collaboration with RRSC-East, Kolkata, National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC). Data used in this study can be obtained on request. One of the authors (D.S Shaik) would like to thank NARL for providing PDF to carry out this work.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Clemens Simmer, Ph.D.
Publisher's Note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Supplementary Information
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Shaik, D.S., Ratnam, M.V., Subrahmanyam, K.V. et al. Seasonal dependence of characteristics of rain drop size distribution over two different climatic zones of India. Meteorol Atmos Phys 136, 12 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-024-01012-4
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00703-024-01012-4